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REPORT 


ON  THE 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION 


OF  THE 


UNITED  STATES, 


WITH  A 


MORE  DETAILED  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 

WITH  MAPS. 


J.  W.  POWELL. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


WASHINGTON  : 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1879. 


Congress  of  the  United  States  (3d  Session), 

In  the  House  of  Representatives, 

March  3,  187S). 

The  following  resolution;  originating  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  has  Ihis  day  heen  con- 
curred in  hy  the  Senate : 

Resolved,  hy  the  Home  of  Representatives  ( the  Senate  concumng).  That  there  he  printed  five  thou- 
sand copies  of  the  Report  on  the  Lands  of  the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States,  hy  J.  W.  Powell ; one 
thousand  for  the  use  of  the  Senate,  two  thousand  for  the  use  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  two 
thousand  for  the  use  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Attest : 


GEO.  M.  ADAMS,  Clerk. 


333>n"b 


/ 27^ 

c^cnp.^ 


J.  W.  POWELL’S  REPORT  ON  SURVEY  OF  THE  ROCKY 
MOUNTAIN  REGION. 


THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  INTERIOR, 


Report  of  J.  W.  Powell,  geologist  in  charge  of  the  United  States  Geographical 
and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  upon  the  lands  of 
the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States. 


April  3,  1878.— Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Appropriations  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 


Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a report  front  Maj.  J.  W. 
Powell,  geologist  in  charge  of  the  United  States  Geographical  and  Geolog- 
ical Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  upon  the  lands  of  the  Arid 
Region  of  the  United  States,  setting  forth  the  extent  of  said  region,  and 
making  suggestions  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  lands  embraced 
within  its  limit  may  be  rendered  available  for  agricultural  and  glazing 
purposes.  With  the  report  is  transmitted  a statement  of  the  rainfall  of  the 
western  portion  of  the  United  States,  with  reports  upon  the  subject  of 
irrigation  by  Capt.  C.  E.  Dutton,  U.  S.  A.,  Prof.  A.'  H.  Thompson,  and  Mr. 
G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Herewith  are  also  transmitted  draughts  of  two  bills,  one  entitled  “A 
bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  pasturage  districts  by  homestead  settle- 


LETTER 


FROM 


TRANSMITTING 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  April  3,  1878. 


ili 


827572 


IV 


LANDS  OP  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


merits  on  the  public  lands  which  are  of  value  for  pasturage  purposes  only”, 
and  the  other  “A  bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  irrigation  districts 
by  homestead  settlements  upon  the  public  lands  requiring  irrigation  for 
agricultural  purposes”,  intended  to  carry  into  effect  a new  system  for  the 
disposal  of  the  public  lands  of  said  region,  and  to  promote  the  settlement 
and  development  of  that  portion  of  the  country. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  rendering  the  vast  extent  of  country 
referred  to  available  for  agricultural  and  grazing  purposes,  I have  the  honor 
to  commend  the  views  set  forth  by  Major  Powell  and  the  bills  submitted 
herewith  to  the  consideration  of  Congress. 

Very  respectfully, 

C.  SCHURZ, 

Secretary. 


Hon.  Samuel  J.  Randall, 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 


Department  of  the  Interior,  General  Land  Office, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  April  1,  1878. 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  a report  from  Maj.  J.  W. 
Powell,  in  charge  of  the  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  regard  to  the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States,  and  draughts 
of  two  bills,  one  entitled  “A  bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  pasturage 
districts  by  homestead  settlements  on  the  public  lands  which  are  of  value 
for  pasturage  purposes  only”,  and  the  other  “A  bill  to  authorize  the  organ- 
ization of  irrigation  districts  by  homestead  settlements  upon  the  public 
lands  requiring  irrigation  for  agricultural  purposes”. 

Major  Powell  reviews  at  length  the  features  of,  and  furnishes  statistics 
relative  to,  the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States,  which  is  substantially  the 
territory  west  of  the  one  hundredth  meridian  and  east  of  the  Cascade 
Range,  and  the  bills  named  are  intended,  if  passe'd,  to  carry  into  effect  the 
views  expressed  in  his  report  for  the  settlement  and  development  of  this 
region. 

He  has,  in  the  performance  of  his  duties  in  conducting  the  geological 
and  geographical  survey,  been  over  much  of  the  country  referred  to,  and 


LETTERS  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


is  qualified  by  observation,  research,  and  study  to  speak  of  the  topography, 
characteristics,  and  adaptability  of  the  same. 

I have  not  been  able,  on  account  of  more  urgent  official  duties,  to  give 
Major  Powell’s  report  and  proposed  bills  the  careful  investigation  necessary, 
in  view  of  their  great  importance,  to  enable  me  to  express  a decided  opinion 
as  to  their  merits.  Some  change  is  necessary  in  the  survey  and  disposal 
of  the  lands,  and  I think  his  views  are  entitled  to  great'  weight,  and  would 
respectfully  recommend  that  such  action  be  taken  as  will  bring  his  report 
and  bills  before  Congress  for  consideration  by  that  body. 

Very  respectfully, 

J.  A.  WILLIAMSON, 


Hon.  C.  Schurz, 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


Commissioner. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

U.  S.  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  April  1,  1878. 

Sir  : I have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a report  on  the  lands  of 
the  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States.  After  setting  forth  the  general  facts 
relating  to  the  conditions  under  which  these  lands  must  be  utilized,  I have 
taken  the  liberty  to  suggest  a system  for  their  disposal  which  I believe 
would  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  country. 

I wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  for  the  assistance  you  have  given 
me  in  the  collection  of  many  of  the  facts  necessary  to  the  discussion,  and 
especially  for  the  aid- you  have  rendered  in  the  preparation  of  the  maps. 

Permit  me  to  express  the  hope  that  the  great  interest  you  take  in  the 
public  domain  will  be  rewarded  by  the  consciousness  that  you  have  assisted 
many  citizens  in  the  establishment  of  farm  homes  thereon. 

I am,  with  great  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  W.  POWELL, 

In  charge  U.  S.  G.  and  G.  Survey  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

Hon.  J.  A.  Williamson, 

Commissioner  General  Land  Office , Washington , D.  C. 


PREFACE. 


It  was  my  intention  to  write  a work  on  the  Public  Domain.  The 
object  of  the  volume  was  to  give  the  extent  and  character  of  the  lands  yet 
belonging  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States.  Compared  with  the 
whole  extent  of  these  lands,  but  a very  small  fraction  is  immediately 
available  for  agriculture ; in  general,  they  require  drainage  or  irrigation  for 
their  redemption. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  Southern  States  there  are  some  millions  of  acres, 
chiefly  timber  lands,  which  at  no  remote  time  will  be  occupied  for  agricul- 
tural purposes.  Westward  toward  the  Great  Plains,  the  lands  in  what  I 
have,  in  the  body  of  this  volume,  termed  the  Humid  Region  have  passed 
from  the  hands  of  the  General  Government.  To  this  statement  there  are 
some  small  exceptions  here  and  there — fractional  tracts,  which,  for  special 
reasons,  have  not  been  considered  desirable  by  persons  in  search  of  lands 
for  purposes  of  investment  or  occupation. 

In  the  Sub-humid  Region  settlements  are  rapidly  extending  westward 
to  the  verge  of  the  country  where  agriculture  is  possible  without  irrigation. 

In  the  Humid  Region  of  the  Columbia  the  agricultural  lands  are 
largely  covered  by  great  forests,  and  for  this  reason  settlements  will  pro- 
gress slowly,  as  the  lands  must  be  cleared  of  their  timber. 

The  redemption  of  the  Arid  Region  involves  engineering  problems 
requiring  for  their  solution  the  greatest  skill.  In  the  present  volume  only 
these  lands  are  considered.  Had  I been  able  to  execute  the  original  plan 
to  my  satisfaction,  1 should  have  treated  of  the  coast  swamps  of  the  South 
Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  slopes,  the  Everglade  lands  of  the  Floridian  Penin- 
sula, the  flood  plain  lands  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  south,  which  have  here- 


viii  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

tofore  been  made  available  only  to  a limited  extent  by  a system  of  levees, 
and  the  lake  swamp  lands  found  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Mississippi 
and  the  region  of  the  upper  Great  Lakes.  All  of  these  lands  require 
either  drainage  or  protection  from  overflow,  and  the  engineering  problems 
involved  are  of  diverse  nature.  These  lands  are  to  be  redeemed  from 
excessive  humidity,  while  the  former  are  to  be  redeemed  from  excessive 
aridity.  When  the  excessively  humid  lands  are  redeemed,  their  fertility  is 
almost  inexhaustible,  and  the  agricultural  capacity  of  the  United  States 
will  eventually  be  largely  increased  by  the  rescue  of  these  lands  from  then- 
present  valueless  condition.  In  like  manner,  on  the  other  hand,  the  arid 
lands,  so  far  as  they  can  be  redeemed  by  irrigation,  will  perennially  yield 
bountiful  crops,  as  the  means  for  their  redemption  involves  their  constant 
fertilization. 

To  a great  extent,  the  redemption  of  all  these  lands  will  require  exten- 
sive and  comprehensive  plans,  for  the  execution  of  which  aggregated  capi- 
tal or  cooperative  labor  will  be  necessary.  Here,  individual  farmers,  being 
poor  men,  cannot  undertake  the  task.  For  its  accomplishment  a wise 
prevision,  embodied  in  carefully  considered  legislation,  is  necessary.  It  was 
my  purpose  not  only  to  consider  the  character  of  the  lands  themselves,  but 
also  the  engineering  problems  involved  in  their  redemption,  and  further  to 
make  suggestions  for  the  legislative  action  necessary  to  inaugurate  the 
enterprises  by  which  these  lands  may  eventually  be  rescued  from  their 
present  worthless  state.  When  I addressed  myself  to  the  broader  task  as 
indicated  above,  I found  that  my  facts  in  relation  to  some  of  the  classes  of 
lands  mentioned,  especially  the  coast  swamps  of  the  Gulf  and  some  of  the 
flood  plain  lands  of  the  southern  rivers,  were  too  meager  for  anything  more 
than  general  statements.  There  seemed  to  be  no  immediate  necessity  for 
the  discussion  of  these  subjects;  but  to  the  Arid  Region  of  the  west  thou- 
sands of  persons  are  annually  repairing,  and  the  questions  relating  to  the 
utilization  of  these  lands  are  of  present  importance.  Under  these  considera- 
tions I have  decided  to  publish  that  portion  of  the  volume  relating  to  the 
arid  lands,  and  to  postpone  to  some  future  time  that  part  relating  to  the 
excessively  humid  lands. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  contemplated  volume  I desired  to  give  a 


PREFACE 


IX 


historical  sketch  of  the  legislation  relating  to  swamp  lands  and  executive 
action  thereunder  ; another  chapter  on  bounty  lands  and  land  grants  for 
agricultural  schools,  and  still  another  on  land  grants  in  aid  of  internal 
improvements — chiefly  railroads.  The  latter  chapter  has  already  been 
prepared  by  Mr.  Willis  Drummond,  jr.,  and  as  the  necessary  map  is  ready 
I have  concluded  to  publish  it  now,  more  especially  as  the  granted  lands 
largely  lie  in  the  Arid  Region.  Mr.  Drummond’s  chapter  has  been  carefully 
prepared  and  finely  written,  and  contains  much  valuable  information. 

To  the  late  Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, I am  greatly  indebted  for  access  to  the  records  of  the  Institution 
relating  to  rainfall.  Since  beginning  my  explorations  and  surveys  in  the 
far  west,  I have  received  the  counsel  and  assistance  of  the  venerable 
professor  on  all  important  matters  relating  to  my  investigations ; and  what- 
ever of  value  has  been  accomplished  is  due  in  no  small  part  to  his  wisdom 
and  advice.  I cannot  but  express  profound  sorrow  at  the  loss  of  a coun- 
selor so  wise,  so  patient,  and  so  courteous. 

I am  also  indebted  to  Mr.  Charles  A.  Schott,  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey,  to  whom  the  discussion  of  the  rain  gauge  records  has  been 
intrusted  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  for  furnishing  to  me  the  required 
data  in  advance  of  publication  by  himself. 

Unfortunately,  the  chapters  written  by  Messrs.  Gilbert,  Dutton,  Thomp- 
son, and  Drummond  have  not  been  proof-read  by  themselves,  by  reason  of 
their  absence  during  the  time  when  the  volume  was  going  through  the 
press ; but  this  is  the  less  to  be  regretted  from  the  fact  that  the  whole 
volume  has  been  proof-read  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Pilling,  whose  critical  skill  is  all 
that  could  be  desired. 


August,  1878. 


J.  W.  P. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 


The  first  edition  of  this  report  having  been  exhausted  in  a few  months 
and  without  satisfying  the  demand  which  the  importance  of  the  subject 
created,  a second  was  ordered  by  Congress  in  March,  1879.  The  authors 
were  thus  given  an  opportunity  to  revise  their  text  and  eliminate  a few 
formal  errors  which  had  crept  in  by  reason  of  their  absence  while  the  first 
edition  was  passing  through  the  press.  The  substance  of  the  report  is 
unchanged. 

J.  W.  P. 

July,  1879. 

XI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Arid  Region:  page. 

The  Arid  Region 5 

Irrigable  lands 6 

Advantages  of  irrigation 10 

Cooperative  labor  or  capital  necessary  for  the  development  of  irrigation 11 

The  use  of  smaller  streams  sometimes  interferes  with  the  use  of  the  larger 12 

Increase  of  irrigable  area  by  the  storage  of  water 12 

Timber  lands 14 

Agricultural  and  timber  industries  differentiated 18 

Cultivation  of  timber 19 

Pasturage  lands ~ 19 

Pasturage  farms  need  small  tracts  of  irrigable  land 21 

The  farm  unit  for  pasturage  lands 21 

Regular  division  lines  for  pasturage  farms  not  practicable 22 

Farm  residences  should  be  grouped 22 

Pasturage  lands  cannot  be  fenced 23 

Recapitulation 23 

Irrigable  lands 23 

Timber  lands 23 

Pasturage  lands 24 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Land-System  needed  for  the  Arid  Region: 

Irrigable  lands 27 

Timber  lands 27 

Pasturage  lands 28 

A bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  irrigation  districts 30 

A bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  pasturage  districts 33 

Water  rights 40 

The  lands  should  be  classified 43 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Rainfall  of  the  Western  Portion  of  the  United  States: 

Precipitation  of  the  Sub-humid  Region 47 

Precipitation  of  the  Arid  Region 48 

Precipitation  of  the  San  Francisco  Region 49 

Precipitation  of  the  Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia 49 


XIII 


xiv  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Page. 

The  Rainfall  of  the  Western  Portion  of  the  United  States — Continued. 

Distribution  of  rain  through  the  year 50 

Precipitation  of  Texas 50 

Precipitation  of  Dakota 51 

Seasonal  precipitation  in  the  Region  of  the  Plains 52 

Seasonal  precipitation  in  the  San  Francisco  Region 53 

Mean  temperature,  by  seasons,  for  the  San  Francisco  Region 54 

Seasonal  precipitation  and  temperature  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  etc 55 

Seasonal  precipitation  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 56 

CHAPTER  IY. 

Water  Supply. — By  G.  K.  Gilbert  : 

Increase  of  streams 57 

Rise  of  Great  Salt  Lake 58 

Volcanic  theory : 67 

Climatic  theory 68 

Theory  of  human  agencies 71 

Farming  without  irrigation 77 

CHAPTER  V. 

Certain  Important  Questions  relating  to  Irrigable  Lands: 

The  unit  of  water  used  in  irrigation 81 

The  quantitative  value  of  water  in  irrigation 81 

Area  of  irrigable  land  sometimes  not  limited  by  water  supply. 85 

Method  of  determining  the  supply  of  water 85 

Methods  of  determining  the  extent  of  irrigable  land  unlimited  by  water  supply 86 

The  selection  of  irrigable  lands 87 

Increase  in  the  water  supply 89 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Lands  of  Utah: 

Physical  features 93 

Timber 98 

Irrigable  and  pasturage  lands 103 

Uinta- White  Basin 103 

The  Cafion  Lands 105 

The  Sevier  Lake  District 106 

The  Great  Salt  Lake  District 106 

Grasses 107 

Table  of  Irrigable  lands  in  Utah  Territory Ill 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Irrigable  Lands  of  the  Salt  Lake  Drainage  System.— By  G.  K.  Gilbert: 

Irrigation  by  the  larger  streams 117 

Bear  River  drainage  basin 119 

Weber  River  drainage  basin 121 

Jordan  River  drainage  basin. 124 

Irrigation  by  smaller  streams 126 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Irrigable  Lands  of  the  Valley  of  the  Sevier  River. — By  Capt.  C.  E.  Dutton  : 

Altitudes  of  the  San  Pete  Valley 133 

Volume  of  flowing  water  in  San  Pete  Valley 140 

Irrigable  lands  of  the  Sevier  Lake  District 144 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


XV 


Irrigable  Lands  of  that  portion  of  Utah  drained  by  the  Colorado  River  and  its  Tribu- 


taries.— By  Prof.  A.  H.  Thompson  : 

The  Virgin  River -T 152 

Kanab  Creek 154 

The  Paria  River 145 

The  Escalante  River 156 

The  Fremont  River 157 

The  San  Rafael  River 158 

The  Price  River 159 

Minnie  Maud  Creek 159 

The  Uinta  River 160 

Ashley  Fork 161 

Henrys  Fork  I 161 

The  White  River 161 

The  Green  River 162 

The  Grand  River 163 

The  San  Juan  River 163 

Other  streams 163 

Irrigable  lands  of  the  Colorado  drainage 164 


CHAPTER  X. 


Land  Grants  in  Aid  of  Internal  Improvements. — By  Willis  Drummond,  Jr 


165 


REPORT  ON  THE  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  J.  W.  Powell. 


CH  A PT  K ll  I. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID 
REGION. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  is  supplied  with  abundant 
rainfall  for  agricultural  purposes,  receiving  the  necessary  amount  from  the 
evaporation  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ; but  westward 
the  amount  of  aqueous  precipitation  diminishes  in  a general  way  until  at 
last  a region  is  reached  where  the  climate  is  so  arid  that  agriculture  is  not 
successful  without  irrigation.  This  Arid  Region  begins  about  midway  in 
the  Great  Plains  and  extends  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  But  on  the  northwest  coast  there  is  a region  of  greater  precipita- 
tion, embracing  western  Washington  and  Oregon  and  the  northwest  corner 
of  California.  The  winds  impinging  on  this  region  are  freighted  with 
moisture  derived  from  the  great  Pacific  currents ; and  where  this  water- 
laden atmosphere  strikes  the  western  coast  in  full  force,  the  precipitation  is 
excessive,  reaching  a maximum  north  of  the  Columbia  River  of  80  inches 
annually.  But  the  rainfall  rapidly  decreases  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  east- 
ward to  the  summit  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  It  will  be  convenient  to 
designate  this  humid  area  as  the  Lower  Columbia  Region.  Rain  gauge 
records  have  not  been  made  to  such  an  extent  as  to  enable  us  to  define  its 
eastern  and  southern  boundaries,  but  as  they  are  chiefly  along  high  moun- 
tains, definite  boundary  lines  are  unimportant  in  the  consideration  of 
agricultural  resources  and  the  questions  relating  thereto.  In  like  manner  on 
the  east  the  rain  gauge  records,  though  more  full,  do  not  give  all  the  facts 
necessary  to  a thorough  discussion  of' the  subject;  yet  the  records  are  such 

3 A E 


2 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


as  to  indicate  approximately  the  boundary  between  the  Arid  Region,  where 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture,  and  the  Humid  Region,  where  the  lands 
receive  enough  moisture  from  the  clouds  for  the  maturing  of  crops.  Expe- 
rience teaches  that  it  is  not  wise  to  depend  upon  rainfall  where  the  amount 
is  less  than  20  inches  annually,  if  this  amount  is  somewhat  evenly  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  year ; but  if  the  rainfall  is  unevenly  distributed,  so  that 
“rainy  seasons”  are  produced,  the  question  whether  agriculture  is  possible 
Avithout  irrigation  depends  upon  the  time  of  the  “rainy  season”  and  the 
amount  of  its  rainfall.  Any  unequal  distribution  of  rain  through  the  year, 
though  the  inequality  be  so  slight  as  not  to  produce  “rainy  seasons”,  affects 
agriculture  either  favorably  or  unfavorably.  If  the  spring  and  summer  pre- 
cipitation exceeds  that  of  the  fall  and  winter,  a smaller  amount  of  annual  rain 
may  be  sufficient;  but  if  the  rainfall  during  the  season  of  growing  crops  is  less 
than  the  average  of  the  same  length  of  time  during  the  remainder  of  the  year, 
a greater  amount  of  annual  precipitation  is  necessary.  In  some  localities  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  United  States  this  unequal  distribution  of  rainfall 
through  the  seasons  affects  agriculture  favorably,  and  this  is  true  imme- 
diately west  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  line  of  20  inches  of  rainfall,  which 
extends  along  the  plains  from  our  northern  to  our  southern  boundary. 

The  isohyetal  or  mean  annual  rainfall  line  of  20  inches,  as  indicated 
on  the  rain  chart  accompanying  this  report,  begins  on  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States,  about  60  miles  west  of  Brownsville,  on  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte,  and  intersects  the  northern  boundary  about  50  miles  east 
of  Pembina.  Between  these  two  points  the  line  is  very  irregular,  but  in 
middle  latitudes  makes  a general  curve  to  the  westward.  On  the  southern 
portion  of  the  line  the  rainfall  is  somewhat  evenly  distributed  through  the 
seasons,  but  along  the  northern  portion  the  rainfall  of  spring  and  summer 
is  greater  than  that  of  fall  and  winter,  and  hence  the  boundary  of  what  has 
been  called  the  Arid  Region  runs  farther  to  the  west.  Again,  there  is 
another  modifying  condition,  namely,  that  of  temperature.  Where  the  tem- 
perature is  greater,  more  rainfall  is  needed ; where  the  temperature  is  less, 
agriculture  is  successful  with  a smaller  amount  of  precipitation.  Birt  geo- 
graphically this  temperature  is  dependent  upon  two  conditions — altitude  and 
latitude.  Along  the  northern  portion  of  the  line  latitude  is  an  important 


* PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


3 


factor,  and  the  line  of  possible  agriculture  without  irrigation  is  carried  still 
farther  westward.  This  conclusion,  based  upon  the  consideration  of  rain- 
fall and  latitude,  accords  with  the  experience  of  the  farmers  of  the  region, 
for  it  is  a well  known  fact  that  agriculture  without  irrigation  is  successfully 
carried  on  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  and  also  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  Dakota  Territory.  A much  more  extended  series  of  rain- 
gauge  records  than  we  now  have  is  necessary  before  this  line  constituting 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Arid  Region  can  be  well  defined.  It  is  doubt- 
less more  or  less  meandering  in  its  course  throughout  its  whole  extent  from 
south  to  north,  being  affected  by  local  conditions  of  rainfall,  as  well  as  by 
the  general  conditions  above  mentioned ; but  in  a general  way  it  may  be 
represented  by  the  one  hundredth  meridian,  in  some  places  passing  to  the 
east,  in  others  to  the  west,  but  in  the  main  to  the  east. 

The  limit  of  successful  agriculture  without  irrigation  has  been  set  at 
20  inches,  that  the  extent  of  the  Arid  Region  should  by  no  means  be  exag- 
gerated ; but  at  20  inches  agriculture  will  not  be  uniformly  successful  from 
season  to  season.  Many  droughts  will  occur  ; many  seasons  in  a long  series 
will  be  fruitless ; and  it  may  be  doubted  whether,  on  the  whole,  agriculture 
will  prove  remunerative.  On  this  point  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  cer- 
tainty. A larger  experience  than  the  history  of  agriculture  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  United  States  affords  is  necessary  to  a final  determination  of 
the  question. 

In  fact,,  a broad  belt  separates  the  Arid  Region  of  the  west  from  the 
Humid  Region  of  the  east.  Extending  from  the  one  hundredth  meridian 
eastward  to  about  the  isohyetal  line  of  28  inches,  the  district  of  country 
thus  embraced  will  be  subject  more  or  less  to  disastrous  droughts,  the  fre- 
quency of  which  will  diminish  from  west  to  east.  For  convenience  let 
this  be  called  the  Sub-humid  Region.  Its  western  boundary  is  the  line 
already  defined  as  running  irregularly  along  the  one  hundredth  meridian. 
Its  eastern  boundary  passes  west  of  the  isohyetal  line  of  28  inches  of  rain- 
fall in  Minnesota,  running  approximately  parallel  to  the  western  boundary 
line  above  described.  Nearly  one-tenth  of  the  whole  area  of  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  Alaska,  is  embraced  in  this  Sub-humid  Region.  In  the 
western  portion  disastrous  droughts  will  be  frequent ; in  the  eastern  portion 


4 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


infrequent.  In  the  western  portion  agriculturists  will  early  resort  to  irri- 
gation to  secure  immunity  from  such  disasters,  and  this  event  will  he 
hastened  because  irrigation  when  properly  conducted  is  a perennial  source 
of  fertilization,  and  is  even  remunerative  for  this  purpose  alone ; and  for 
the  same  reason  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  part  will  gradually  develop 
irrigating  methods.  It  may  be  confidently  expected  that  at  a time  not  far 
distant  irrigation  will  be  practiced  to  a greater  or  less  extent  throughout 
this  Sub-humid  Region.  Its  settlement  presents  problems  differing  mate- 
rially from  those  pertaining  to  the  region  to  the  westward.  Irrigation  is  not 
immediately  necessary,  and  hence  agriculture  does  not  immediately  depend 
upon  capital.  The  region  may  be  settled  and  its  agricultural  capacities 
more  or  less  developed,  and  the  question  of  the  construction  of  irrigating 
canals  may  be  a matter  of  time  and  convenience.  For  many  reasons,  much 
of  the  sub-humid  belt  is  attractive  to  settlers  : it  is  almost  destitute  of  ftn> 
ests,  and  for  this  reason  is  more  readily  subdued,  as  the  land  is  ready  for 
the  plow.  But  because  of  the  lack  of  forests  the  country  is  more  depend- 
ent upon  railroads  for  the  transportation  of  building  and  fencing  materials 
and  for  fuel.  To  a large  extent  it  is  a region  where  timber  may  be  success- 
fully cultivated.  As  the  rainfall  is  on  a general  average  nearly  sufficient 
for  continuous  successful  agriculture,  the  amount  of  water  to  be  supplied 
by  irrigating  canals  will  be  comparatively  small,  so  that  its  streams  can 
serve  proportionally  larger  areas  than  the  streams  of  the  Arid  Region.  In 
its  first  settlement  the  people  will  be  favored  by  having  lands  easily  sub- 
dued, but  they  will  have  to  contend  against  a lack  of  timber.  Eventually 
this  will  be  a region  of  great  agricultural  wealth,  as  in  general  the  soils  are 
good.  From  our  northern  to  our  southern  boundary  no  swamp  lands  are 
found,  except  to  some  slight  extent  in  the  northeastern  portion,  and  it  has 
no  excessively  hilly  or  mountainous  districts.  It  is  a beautiful  prairie 
country  throughout,  lacking  somewhat  in  rainfall ; but  this  want  can  be 
easily  supplied  by  utilizing  the  living  streams;  and,  further,  these  streams 
will  afford  fertilizing  materials  of  great  value. 

The  Humid  Region  of  the  lower  Columbia  and  the  Sub-humid  Region 
of  the  Great  Plains  have  been  thus  briefly  indicated  in  order  that  the  great 
Arid  Region,  which  is  the  subject  of  this  paper,  may  be  more  clearly  defined. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


5 


THE  ARID  REGION. 

The  Arid  Region  is  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  Region  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  embraces  something  more  than  four-tenths  of  the  whole  coun- 
try, excluding  Alaska  In  all  this  region  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  insuf- 
ficient for  agriculture,  but  in  certain  seasons  some  localities,  now  here,  now 
there,  receive  more  than  their  average  supply.  Under  such  conditions 
crops  will  mature  without  irrigation.  As  such  seasons  are  more  or  less  in- 
frequent even  in  the  more  favored  localities,  and  as  the  agriculturist  cannot 
determine  in  advance  when  such  seasons  may  occur,  the  opportunities 
afforded  by  excessive  rainfall  cannot  be  improved. 

In  central  and  northern  California  an  unequal  distribution  of  rainfall 
through  the  seasons  affects  agricultural  interests  favorably.  A “ rainy 
season”  is  here  found,  and  the  chief  precipitation  occurs  in  the  months  of 
December-April.  The  climate,  tempered  by  mild  winds  from  the  broad 
expanse  of  Pacific  waters,  is  genial,  and  certain  crops  are  raised  by  sow- 
ing the  seeds  immediately  before  or  during  the  “rainy  season”,  and  the 
watering  which  they  receive  causes  the  grains  to  mature  so  that  fairly 
remunerative  crops  are  produced.  But  here  again  the  lands  are  subject  to 
the  droughts  of  abnormal  seasons.  As  many  of  these  lands  can  be  irri- 
gated, the  farmers  of  the  country  are  resorting  more  and  more  to  the 
streams,  and  soon  all  the  living  waters  of  this  region  will  be  brought  into 
requisition. 

In  the  tables  of  a subsequent  chapter  this  will  be  called  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Region. 

Again  in  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon,  and  perhaps  in  northern 
Idaho,  agriculture  is  practiced  to  a limited  extent  without  irrigation.  The 
conditions  of  climate  by  which  this  is  rendered  possible  are  not  yet  fully 
understood.  The  precipitation  of  moisture  on  the  mountains  is  greater 
than  on  the  lowlands,  but  the  hills  and  mesas  adjacent  to  the  great  masses 
of  mountains  receive  a little  of  the  supply  condensed  b}r  the  mountains 
themselves,  and  it  will  probably  be  found  that  limited  localities  in  Montana, 
and  even  in  Wyoming,  will  be  favored  by  this  condition  to  an  extent  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  agricultural  operations  independent  of  irrigation.  These 


6 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


lands,  however,  are  usually  supplied  with  living-  streams,  and  their  irriga- 
tion can  be  readily  effected,  and  to  secure  greater  certainty  and  greater 
yield  of  crops  irrigation  will  be  practiced  in  such  places. 

IRRIGABLE  LANDS. 

Within  the  Arid  Region  only  a small  portion  of  the  country  is  irriga- 
ble. These  irrigable  tracts  are  lowlands  lying  along  the  streams.  On  the 
mountains  and  high  plateaus  forests  are  found  at  elevations  so  great  that 
frequent  summer  frosts  forbid  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Here  are  the 
natural  timber  lands  of  the  Arid  Region — an  upper  region  set  apart  by 
nature  for  the  growth  of  timber  necessary  to  the  mining,  manufacturing, 
and  agricultural  industries  of  the  country.  Between  the  low  irrigable 
lands  and  the  elevated  forest  lands  there  are  valleys,  mesas,  hills,  and 
mountain  slopes  bearing  grasses  of  greater  or  less  value  for  pasturage 
purposes. 

Then,  in  discussing  the  lands  of  the  Arid  Region,  three  great  classes 
are  recognized — the  irrigable  lands  below,  the  forest  lands  above,  and  the 
pasturage  lands  between.  In  order  to  set  forth  the  characteristics  of  these 
lands  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  can  be  most  profitably  utilized, 
it  is  deemed  best  to  discuss  first  a somewhat  limited  region  in  detail  as  a 
fair  type  of  the  whole.  The  survey  under  the  direction  of  the  writer  has 
been  extended  over  the  greater  part  of  Utah,  a small  part  of  Wyoming  and 
Colorado,  the  northern  portion  of  Arizona,  and  a small  part  of  Nevada,  but 
it  is  proposed  to  take  up  for  this  discussion  only  the  area  embraced  in  Utah 
Territory. 

In  Utah  Territory  agriculture  is  dependent  upon  irrigation.  To  this 
statement  there  are  some  small  exceptions.  In  the  more  elevated  regions 
there  are  tracts  of  meadow  land  from  which  small  crops  of  hay  can  be 
taken:  such  lands  being  at  higher  altitudes  need  less  moisture,  and  at  the 
same  time  receive  a greater  amount  of  rainfall  because  of  the  altitude  ; but 
these  meadows  have  been,  often  are,  and  in  future  will  be,  still  more 
improved  by  irrigation.  Again,  on  the  belt  of  country  lying  between 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  Wasatch  Mountains  the  local  rainfall  is  much 
greater  than  the  general  rainfall  of  the  region.  The  water  evaporated 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


7 


from  the  lake  is  carried  by  the  westerly  winds  to  the  adjacent  mountains 
on  the  east  and  again  condensed,  and  the  rainfall  thus  produced  extends 
somewhat  beyond  the  area  occupied  by  the  mountains,  so  that  the  foothills 
and  contiguous  bench  lands  receive  a modicum  of  this  special  supply.  In 
some  seasons  this  additional  supply  is  enough  to  water  the  lands  for  remu- 
nerative agriculture,  but  the  crops  grown  will  usually  be  very  small,  and 
they  will  be  subject  to  seasons  of  extreme  drought,  when  all  agriculture 
will  result  in  failure.  Most  of  these  lands  can  be  irrigated,  and  doubtless 
will  be,  from  a consideration  of  the  facts  already  stated,  namely,  that  crops 
will  thereby  be  greatly  increased  and  immunity  from  drought  secured. 
Perhaps  other  small  tracts,  on  account  of  their  subsoils,  can  be  profitably 
cultivated  in  favorable  seasons,  but  all  of  these  exceptions  are  small,  and 
the  fact  remains  that  agriculture  is  there  dependent  upon  irrigation.  Only 
a small  part  of  the  territory,  however,  can  be  redeemed,  as  high,  rugged 
mountains  and  elevated  plateaus  occupy  much  of  its  area,  and  these 
regions  are  so  elevated  that  summer  frosts  forbid  their  occupation  by  the 
farmer.  Thus  thermic  conditions  limit  agriculture  to  the  lowlands,  and 
here  another  limit  is  found  in  the  supply  of  water.  Some  of  the  large 
streams  run  in  deep  gorges  so  far  below  the  general  surface  of  the  country 
that  they  cannot  be  used ; for  example,  the  Colorado  River  runs  through 
the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Territory  and  carries  a great  volume  of 
water,  but  no  portion  of  it  can  be  utilized  within  the  Territory  from  the  fact 
that  its  channel  is  so  much  below  the  adjacent  lands.  The  Bear  River,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Territory,  runs  in  a somewhat  narrow  valley,  so 
that  only  a portion  of  its  waters  can  be  utilized.  Generally  the  smaller 
streams  can  be  wholly  employed  in  agriculture,  but  the  lands  which  might 
thus  be  reclaimed  are  of  greater  extent  than  the  amount  which  the  streams 
can  serve ; hence  in  all  such  regions  the  extent  of  irrigable  land  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  volume  of  water  carried  by  the  streams. 

In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  irrigable  land  in-  Utah  it  was 
necessary  to  determine  the  areas  to  which  the  larger  streams  can  be  taken 
by  proper  engineering  skill,  and  the  amount  which  the  smaller  streams  can 
serve.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  necessary  to  determine  first  the  amount 
of  land  which  a given  amount  or  unit  of  water  would  supply,  and  then  the 


8 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


volume  of  water  running  in  the  streams  ; the  product  of  these  factors  giving 
the  extent  of  the  irrigable  lands.  A continuous  flow  of  one  cubic  foot  of 
water  per  second  was  taken  as  the  unit,  and  after  careful  consideration  it 
was  assumed  that  this  unit  of  water  will  serve  from  80  to  100  acres  of  land. 
Usually  the  computations  have  been  made  on  the  basis  of  100  acres.  This 
unit  was  determined  in  the  most  practical  way — from  the  experience  of  the 
farmers  of  Utah  who  have  been  practicing  agriculture  for  the  past  thirty 
years.  Many  of  the  farmers  will  not  admit  that  so  great  a tract  can  be 
cultivated  by  this  unit.  In  the  early  history  of  irrigation  in  this  country 
the  lands  were  oversupplied  with  water,  but  experience  has  shown  that 
irrigation  is  most  successful  when  the  least  amount  of  water  is  used  neces- 
sary to  a vigorous  growth  of  the  crops ; that  is,  a greater  yield  is  obtained 
by  avoiding  both  scanty  and  excessive  watering ; but  the  tendency  to  over- 
water the  lands  is  corrected  only  by  extended  experience.  A great  many 
of  the  waterways  are  so  rudely  constructed  that  much  waste  ensues. 
As  irrigating  methods  are  improved  this  wastage  will  be  avoided ; so  in 
assuming  that  a cubic  foot  of  water  will  irrigate  from  80  to  100  acres  of  land 
it  is  at  the  same  time  assumed  that  only  the  necessary  amount  of  water  will 
be  used,  and  that  the  waterways  will  eventually  be  so  constructed  that  the 
waste  now  almost  universal  will  be  prevented. 

In  determining  the  volume  of  water  flowing  in  the  streams  great 
accuracy  has  not  been  attained.  For  this  purpose  it  would  be  necessary 
to  make  continuous  daily,  or  even  hourly,  observations  for  a series  of  years 
on  each  stream,  but  by  the  methods  described  in  the  following  chapters 
it  will  be  seen  that  a fair  approximation  to  a correct  amount  has  been 
made.  For  the  degree  of  accuracy  reached  much  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  smaller  streams  are  already  used  to  their  fullest  capacity,  and 
thus  experience  has  solved  the  problem. 

Having  determined  from  the  operations  of  irrigation  that  one  cubic 
foot  per  second  of  water  will  irrigate  from  80  to  100  acres  of  land  when  the 
greatest  economy  is  used,  and  having  determined  the  volume  of  water  or 
number  of  cubic  feet  per  second  flowing  in  the  several  streams  of  Utah  by 
the  most  thorough  methods  available  under  the  circumstances,  it  appears 
that  within  the  territory,  excluding  a small  portion  in  the  southeastern 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


9 


corner  where  the  survey  has  not  yet  been  completed,  the  amount  of  land 
which  it  is  possible  to  redeem  by  this  method  is  about  2,262  square  miles, 
or  1,447,920  acres.  Of  course  this  amount  does  not  lie  in  a continuous 
body,  but  is  scattered  in  small  tracts  along  the  water  courses.  For  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  their  situations  a map  of  the  territory  has  been 
prepared,  and  will  be  found  accompanying  this  report,  on  which  the  several 
tracts  of  irrigable  lands  have  been  colored.  A glance  at  this  map  will  show 
how  they  are  distributed.  Excluding  that  small  portion  of  the  territory  in 
the  southeast  corner  not  embraced  in  the  map,  Utah  has  an  area  of  80,000 
square  miles,  of  which  2,262  square  miles  are  irrigable.  That  is,  2.8  per 
cent,  of  the  lands  under  consideration  can  be  cultivated  by  utilizing  all  the 
available  streams  during  the  irrigating  season. 

In  addition  to  the  streams  considered  in  this  statement  there  are 
numerous  small  springs  on  the  mountain  sides  scattered  throughout  the 
territory — springs  which  do  not  feed  permanent  streams  ; and  if  their  waters 
were  used  for  irrigation  the  extent  of  irrigable  land  would  be  slightly 
increased ; to  what  exact  amount  cannot  be  stated,  but  the  difference  would 
be  so  small  as  not  to  materially  affect  the  general  statement,  and  doubtless 
these  springs  can  be  used  in  another  way  and  to  a better  purpose,  as  will 
hereafter  appear. 

This  statement  of  the  facts  relating  to  the  irrigable  lands  of  Utah  will 
serve  to  give  a clearer  conception  of  the  extent  and  condition  of  the 
irrigable  lands  throughout  the  Arid  Region.  Such  as  can  be  redeemed 
are  scattered  along  the  water  courses,  and  are  in  general  the  lowest  lands 
of  the  several  districts  to  which  they  belong.  In  some  of  the  states  and 
territories  the  percentage  of  irrigable  land  is  less  than  in  Utah,  in  others 
greater,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  percentage  in  the  entire  region  is  some- 
what greater  than  in  the  territory  which  we  have  considered. 

The  Arid  Region  is  somewhat  more  than  four-tenths  of  the  total  area 
of  the  United  States,  and  as  the  agricultural  interests  of  so  great  an  area 
are  dependent  upon  irrigation  it  will  be  interesting  to  consider  certain 
questions  relating  to  the  ecohomy  and  practicability  of  distributing  the 
waters  over  the  lands  to  be  redeemed. 

2 A R 


10 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  IRRIGATION. 

There  are  two  Considerations  that  make  irrigation  attractive  to  the 
agriculturist.  Crops  thus  cultivated  are  not  subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
rainfall;  the  farmer  fears  no  droughts ; his  labors  are  seldom  interrupted  and 
his  crops  rarely  injured  by  storms.  This  immunity  from  drought  and  storm 
renders  agricultural  operations  much  more  certain  than  in  regions  of  greater 
humidity.  Again,  the  water  comes  down  from  the  mountains  and  plateaus 
freighted  with  fertilizing  materials  derived  from  the  decaying  vegetation  and 
soils  of  the  upper  regions,  which  are  spread  by  the  flowing  water  over  the 
cultivated  lands.  It  is  probable  that  the  benefits  derived  from  this  source 
alone  will  be  full  compensation  for  the  cost  of  the  process.  Hitherto  these 
benefits  have  not  been  fully  realized,  from  the  fact  that  the  methods 
employed  have  been  more  or  less  crude.  When  the  flow  of  water  over  the 
land  is  too  great  or  too  rapid  the  fertilizing  elements  borne  in  the  waters  are 
carried  past  the  fields,  and  a washing  is  produced  which  deprives  the  lands 
irrigated  of  their  most  valuable  elements,  and  little  streams  cut  the  fields 
with  channels  injurious  in  diverse  ways.  Experience  corrects  these  errors, 
and  the  irrigator  soon  learns  to  flood  his  lands  gently,  evenly,  and  econom- 
ically. It  may  be  anticipated  that  all  the  lands  redeemed  by  irrigation  in 
the  Arid  Region  will  be  highly  cultivated  and  abundantly  productive,  and 
agriculture  will  be  but-  slightly  subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of  scant  and 
excessive  rainfall. 

A stranger  entering  this  Arid  Region  is  apt  to  conclude  that  the  soils 
are  sterile,  because  of  their  chemical  composition,  but  experience  demon- 
strates the  fact  that  all  the  soils  are  suitable  for  agricultural  purposes  when 
properly  supplied  with  water.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  soils  are  over- 
charged with  alkaline  materials,  but  these  can  in  time  be  “washed  out”. 
Altogether  the  fact  suggests  that  far  too  much  attention  has  heretofore  been 
paid  to  the  chemical  constitution  of  soils  and  too  little  to  those  physical  con- 
ditions by  which  moisture  and  air  are  supplied  to  the  roots  of  the  growing 
plants. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


11 


COOPERATIVE  LABOR  OR  CAPITAL  NECESSARY  FOR  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
IRRIGATION. 

Small  streams  can  be  taken  out  and  distributed  by  individual  enter- 
prise, but  cooperative  labor  or  aggregated  capital  must  be  employed  in 
taking  out  the  larger  streams. 

The  diversion  of  a large  stream  from  its  channel  into  a system  of  canals 
demands  a large  outlay  of  labor  and  material.  To  repay  this  all  the  waters 
so  taken  out  must  be  used,  and  large  tracts  of  land  thus  become  dependent 
upon  a single  canal.  It  is  manifest  that  a farmer  depending  upon  his  own 
labor  cannot  undertake  this  task.  To  a great  extent  the  small  streams  are 
already  employed,  and  but  a comparatively  small  portion  of  the  irrigable 
lands  can  be  thus  redeemed;  hence  the  chief  future  development  of  irrigation 
must  come  from  the  use  of  the  larger  streams.  Usually  the  confluence  of  the 
brooks  and  creeks  which  form  a large  river  takes  place  within  the  mountain 
district  which  furnishes  its  source  before  the  stream  enters  the  lowlands 
where  the  waters  are  to  be  used.  The  volume  of  water  carried  by  the  small 
streams  that  reach  the  lowlands  before  uniting  with  the  great  rivers,  or 
before  they  are  lost  in  the  sands,  is  very  small  when  compared  with  the 
volume  of  the  streams  which  emerge  from  the  mountains  as  rivers.  This 
fact  is  important.  If  the  streams  could  be  used  along  their  upper  ramifi- 
cations while  the  several  branches  are  yet  small,  poor  men  could  occupy 
the  lands,  and  by  their  individual  enterprise  the  agriculture  of  the  country 
would  be  gradually  extended  to  the  limit  of  the  capacity  of  the  region; 
but  when  farming  is  dependent  upon  larger  streams  such  men  are  barred 
from  these  enterprises  until  cooperative  labor  can  be  organized  or  capital 
induced  to  assist.  Before  many  years  all  the  available  smaller  streams 
throughout  the  entire  region  will  be  occupied  in  serving  the  lands,  and 
then  all  future  development  will  depend  on  the  conditions  above  described. 

In  Utah  Territory  cooperative  labor,  under  ecclesiastical  organization, 
has  been  very  successful.  Outside  of  Utah  there  are  but  few  instances 
where  it  has  been  tried;  but  at  Greeley,  in  the  State  of  Colorado,  this 
system  has  been  eminently  successful. 


12  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


THE  USE  OF  SMALLER  STREAMS  SOMETIMES  INTERFERES  WITH  THE  USE  OF 
THE  LARGER. 

A river  emerging  from  a mountain  region  and  meandering  through  a 
valley  may  receive  small  tributaries  along  its  valley  course.  These  small 
streams  will  usually  be  taken  out  first,  and  the  lands  which  they  will  be 
made  to  serve  will  often  lie  low  down  in  the  valley,  because  the  waters  can 
be  more  easily  controlled  here  and  because  the  lands  are  better ; and  this 
will  be  done  without  regard  to  the  subsequent  use  of  the  larger  stream  to 
which  the  smaller  ones  are  tributary.  But  when  the  time  comes  to  take  out 
the  larger  stream,  it  is  found  that  the  lands  which  it  can  be  made  to  serve 
lying  adjacent  on  either  hand  are  already  in  part  served  by  the  smaller 
streams,  and  as  it  will  not  pay  to  take  out  the  larger  stream  without  using 
all  of  its  water,  and  as  the  people  who  use  the  smaller  streams  have  already 
vested  rights  in  these  lands,  a practical  prohibition  is  placed  upon  the  use 
of  the  larger  river.  In  Utah,  church  authority,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
adjusts  these  conflicting  interests  by  causing  the  small er  streams  to  be  taken 
out  higher  up  in  their  course.  Such  adjustment  is  not  so  easily  attained  b}r 
the  great  body  of  people  settling  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  and  some 
provision  against  this  difficulty  is  an  immediate  necessity.  It  is  a difficulty 
just  appearing,  but  in  the  future  it  will  be  one  of  great  magnitude. 

INCREASE  OF  IRRIGABLE  AREA  BY  THE  STORAGE  OF  WATER. 

Within  the  Arid  Region  great  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  iron,  coal,  and 
many  other  minerals  are  found,  and  the  rapid  development  of  these  mining 
industries  will  demand  pari  passu  a rapid  development  of  agriculture.  Thus 
all  the  lands  that  can  be  irrigated  will  be  required  for  agricultural  products 
necessary  to  supply  the  local  market  created  by  the  mines.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  waters  of  the  non-growing  season  will  be  stored,  that  they  may  be 
used  in  the  growing  season. 

There  are  two  methods  of  storing  .the  waste  waters.  Reservoirs  may 
be  constructed  near  the  sources  of  the  streams  and  the  waters  held  in  the 
upper  valleys,  or  the  water  may  be  run  from  the  canals  into  ponds  within 
or  adjacent  to  the  district  where  irrigation  is  practiced.  This  latter  method 
will  be  employed  first.  It  is  already  employed  to  some  extent  where  local 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


13 


interests  demand  and  favorable  opportunities  are  afforded.  In  general,  the 
opportunities  for  ponding  water  in  this  way  are  infrequent,  as  the  depres- 
sions where  ponds  can  easily  be  made  are  liable  to  be  so  low  that  the 
waters  cannot  be  taken  from  them  to  the  adjacent  lands,  but  occasionally 
very  favorable  sites  for  such  ponds  may  be  found.  This  is  especially  true 
near  the  mountains  where  alluvial  cones  have  been  formed  at  the  debou- 
chure of  the  streams  from  the  mountain  canons.  Just  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  are  many  places  where  ancient  glaciation  has  left  the  general 
surface  with  many  depressions  favorable  to  ponding. 

Ponding  in  the  lower  region  is  somewhat  wasteful  of  water,  as  the 
evaporation  is  greater  than  above,  and  the  pond  being  more  or  less  shallow 
a greater  proportional  surface  for  evaporation  is  presented.  This  wastage 
is  apparent  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  evaporation  in  an  arid  climate 
may  be  from  60  to  80  inches  annually,  or  even  greater. 

Much  of  the  waste  water  comes  down  in  the  spring  when  the  streams 
are  high  and  before  the  growing  crops  demand  a great  supply.  When  this 
water  is  stored  the  loss  by  evaporation  will  be  small. 

The  greater  storage  of  water  must  come  from  the  construction  of  great 
reservoirs  in  the  highlands  where  lateral  valley's  may  be  dammed  and  the 
main  streams  conducted  into  them  by  canals.  On  most  streams  favorable 
sites  for  such  water  works  can  be  found.  This  subject  cannot  be  discussed 
at  any  length  in  a general  way,  from  the  fact  that  each  stream  presents 
problems  peculiar  to  itself. 

It  cannot  be  very  definitely  stated  to  what  extent  irrigation  can  be 
increased  by  the  storage  of  water.  The  rainfall  is  much  greater  in  the 
mountain  than  in  the  valley  districts.  Much  of  this  precipitation  in  the 
mountain  districts  falls  as  snow.  The  great  snow  banks  are  the  reservoirs 
which  hold  the  water  for  -the  growing  seasons.  Then  the  streams  are  at 
flood  tide;  many  go  dry  after  the  snows  have  been  melted  by  the  midsum- 
mer sun;  hence  they  supply  during  the  irrigating  time  much  more  water 
than  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  During  the  fall  and  winter  the 
streams  are  small;  in  late  spring  and  early  summer  they  are  very  large. 
A day’s  flow  at  flood  time  is  greater  than  a month’s  flow  at  low  water  time. 
During  the  first  part  of  the  irrigating  season  less  water  is  needed,  but  during 


14 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


that  same  time  the  supply  is  greatest.  The  chief  increase  will  come  from 
the  storage  of  this  excess  of  water  in  the  early  part  of  the  irrigating  season. 
The  amount  to  be  stored  will  then  be  great,  and  the  time  of  this  storage 
will  be  so  short  that  it  will  be  but  little  diminished  by  evaporation.  The 
waters  of  the  fall  and  winter  are  so  small  in  amount  that  they  will  not 
furnish  a great  supply,  and  the  time  for  their  storage  will  be  so  great  that 
much  will  be  lost  by  evaporation.  The  increase  by  storage  will  eventually 
be  important,  and  it  would  be  wise  to  anticipate  the  time  when  it  will  be 
needed  by  reserving  sites  for  principal  reservoirs  and  larger  ponds. 

TIMBER  LANDS. 

Throughout  the  Arid  Region  timber  of  value  is  found  growing  sponta- 
neously on  the  higher  plateaus  and  mountains.  These  timber  regions  are 
bounded  above  and  below  by  lines  which  are  very  irregular,  due  to  local 
conditions.  Above  the  upper  line  no  timber  grows  because  of  the  rigor  of 
the  climate,  and  below  no  timber  grows  because  of  aridity.  Both  the  upper 
and  lower  lines  descend  in  passing  from  south  to  north;  that  is,  the  timber 
districts  are  found  at  a lower  altitude  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Arid 
Region  than  in  the  southern.  The  forests  are  chiefly  of  pine,  spruce,  and 
fir,  but  the  pines  are  of  principal  value.  Below  these  timber  regions,  on 
the  lower  slopes  of  mountains,  on  the  mesas  and  hills,  low,  scattered  forests 
are  often  found,  composed  mainly  of  dwarfed  pinon  pines  and  cedars. 
These  stunted  forests  have  some  slight  value  for  fuel,  and  even  for  fencing, 
but  the  forests  of  principal  value  are  found  in  the  Timber  Region  as  above 
described. 

Primarily  the  growth  of  timber  depends  on  climatic  conditions — humid- 
ity and  temperature.  Where  the  temperature . is  higher,  humidity  must 
be  greater,  and  where  the  temperature  is  lower,  humidity  may  be  less. 
These  two  conditions  restrict  the  forests  to  the  highlands,  as  above  stated. 
Of  the  two  factors  involved  in  the  growth  of  timber,  that  of  the  degree  of 
humidity  is  of  the  first  importance;  the  degree  of  temperature  affects  the 
problem  comparatively  little,  and  for  most  of  the  purposes  of  this  discussion 
may  be  neglected.  For  convenience,  all  these  upper  regions  where  condi- 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


15 


tions  of  temperature  and  humidity  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  timber 
may  be  called  the  timber  regions. 

Not  all  these  highlands  are  alike  covered  with  forests.  The  timber 
regions  are  only  in  part  areas  of  standing  timber.  This  limitation  is  caused 
by  fire.  Throughout  the  timber  regions  of  all  the  arid  land  fires  annually 
destroy  larger  or  smaller  districts  of  timber,  now  here,  now  there,  and  this 
destruction  is  on  a scale  so  vast  that  the  amount  taken  from  the  lands  for 
industrial  purposes  sinks  by  comparison  into  insignificance.  The  cause  of 
this  great  destruction  is  worthy  of  careful  attention.  The  conditions  under 
which  these  fires  rage  are  climatic.  Where  the  rainfall  is  great  and  extreme 
droughts  are  infrequent,  forests  grow  without  much  interruption  from  fires; 
but  between  that  degree  of  humidity  necessary  for  their  protection,  and  that 
smaller  degree  necessary  to  growth,  all  lands  are  swept  bare  by  fire  to  an 
extent  which  steadily  increases  from  the  more  humid  to  the  more  arid 
districts,  until  at  last  all  forests  are  destroyed,  though  the  humidity  is  still 
sufficient  for  their  growth  if  immunity  from  fire  were  secured.  The  amount 
of  mean  annual  rainfall  necessary  to  the  growth  of  forests  if  protected  from 
fire  is  probably  about  the  same  as  the  amount  necessary  for  agriculture 
without  irrigation  ; at  any  rate,  it  is  somewhere  from  20  to  24  inches.  All 
timber  growth  below  that  amount  is  of  a character  so  stunted  as  to  be  of 
little  value,  and  the  growth  is  so  slow  that,  when  once  the  timber  has  been 
taken  from  the  country,  the  time  necessary  for  a new  forest  growth  is  so 
great  that  no  practical  purpose  is  subserved. 

The  evidence  that  the  growth  of  timber,  if  protected  from  fires,  might 
be  extended  to  the  limits  here  given  is  abundant.  It  is  a matter  of  expe- 
rience that  planted  forests  thus  protected  will  thrive  throughout  the  prairie 
region  and  far  westward  on  the  Great  Plains.  In  the  mountain  region  it 
may  be  frequently  observed  that  forest  trees  grow  low  down  on  the 
mountain  slopes  and  in  the  higher  valleys  wherever  local  circumstances 
protect  them  from  fires,  as  in  the  case  of  rocky  lands  that  give  insufficient 
footing  to  the  grass  and.  shrubs  in  which  fires  generally  spread.  These 
cases  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  patches  of  forest  that  grow  on  allu- 
vial cones  where  rivers  leave  mountain  canons  and  enter  valleys  or  plains. 
Here  the  streams,  clogged  by  the  material  washed  from  the  adjacent  moun- 


16  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


tains  by  storms,  are  frequently  turned  from  their  courses  and  divided  into 
many  channels  running  near  the  surface.  Thus  a subterranean  watering 
is  effected  favorable  to  the  growth  of  trees,  as  their  roots  penetrate  to  suffi- 
cient depth.  Usually  this  watering  is  too  deep  for  agriculture,  so  that  for- 
ests grow  on  lands  that  cannot  be  cultivated  without  irrigation. 

Fire  is  the  immediate  cause  of  the  lack  of  timber  on  the  prairies,  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  Great  Plains,  and  on  some  portions  of  the  highlands 
of  the  Arid  Region ; but  fires  obtain  their  destructive  force  through  climatic 
conditions,  so  that  directly  and  remotely  climate  determines  the  growth  of 
all  forests.  Within  the  region  where  prairies,  groves,  and  forests  appear, 
the  local  distribution  of  timber  growth  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  drainage 
and  soil,  a subject  which  needs  not  be  here  discussed.  Only  a small  por- 
tion of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  is  protected  by  climatic  conditions 
from  the  invasion  of  fires,  and  a sufficiency  of  forests  for  the  country 
depends  upon  the  control  which  can  be  obtained  over  that  destructive 
agent.  A glance  at  the  map  of  Utah  will  exhibit  the  extent  and  distribu- 
tion of  the  forest  region  throughout  that  territory,  and  also  show  what 
portions  of  it  are  in  fact  occupied  by  standing  timber.  The  area  of  stand- 
ing timber , as  exhibited  on  the  map,  is  but  a part  of  the  Timber  Region  as 
there  shown,  and  includes  all  of  the  timber,  whether  dense  or  scattered. 

Necessarily  the  area  of  standing  timber  has  been  generalized.  It  was 
not  found  practicable  to  indicate  the  growth  of  timber  in  any  refined  way 
by  grading  it,  and  by  rejecting  from  the  general  area  the  innumerable  . 
small  open  spaces.  If  the  area  of  standing  timber  were  considered  by 
acres,  and  all  acres  not  having  timber  valuable  for  milling  purposes  rejected, 
the  extent  would  be  reduced  at  least  to  one-fourth  of  that  colored.  Within 
the  territory  represented  on  the  map  the  Timber  Region  has  an  extent  of 
18,500  square  miles ; that  is,  23  per  cent,  belongs  to  the  Timber  Region. 
The  general  area  of  standing  timber  is  about  10,000  square  miles,  or  12.5 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  area.  The  area  of  milling  timber,  determined  in  the 
more  refined  way  indicated  above,  is  about  2,500  square  miles,  or  per 
cent,  of  the  area  embraced  on  the  map.  In  many  portions  of  the  Arid 
Region  these  percentages  are  much  smaller.  This  is  true  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia, Nevada,  southern  Arizona,  and  Idaho.  In  other  regions  the  percent- 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION.  17 

ages  are  larger.  Utah  gives  about  a fair  average.  In  general  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  timber  regions  are  fully  adequate  to  the  growth  of  all  the 
forests  which  the  industrial  interests  of  the  country  will  require  if  they 
can  be  protected  from  desolation  by  fire.  No  limitation  to  the  use  of  the 
forests  need  be  made.  The  amount  which  the  citizens  of  the  country  will 
require  will  bear  but  a small  proportion  to  the  amount  which  the  fires  will 
destroy;  and  if  the  fires  are  prevented,  the  renewal  by  annual  growth  will 
more  than  replace  that  taken  by  man.  The  protection  of  the  forests  of  the 
entire  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States  is  reduced  to  one  single  problem — 
Can  these  forests  be  saved  from  fire*?  The  writer  has  witnessed  two  fires 
in  Colorado,  each  of  which  destroyed  more  timber  than  all  that  used  by 
the  citizens  of  that  State  from  its  settlement  to  the  present  day;  and  at 
.least  three  in  Utah,  each  of  which  has  destroyed  more  timber  than  that 
taken  by  the  people  of  the  territory  since  its  occupation.  Similar  fires 
have  been  witnessed  by  other  members  of  the  surveying  corps.  Every- 
where throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  the  explorer  away  from 
the  beaten  paths  of  civilization  meets  with  great  areas  of  dead  forests ; 
pines  with  naked  arms  and  charred  trunks  attesting  to  the  former  presence 
of  this  great  destroyer.  The  younger  forests  are  everywhere  beset  with 
fallen  timber,  attesting  to  the  rigor  of  the  flames,  and  in  seasons  of  great 
drought  the  mountaineer  sees  the  heavens  filled  with  clouds  of  smoke. 

In  the  main  these  fires  are  set  by  Indians.  Driven  from  the  lowlands 
by  advancing  civilization,  they  resort  to  the  higher  regions  until  they  are 
forced  back  by  the  deep  snows  of  winter.  Want,  caused  by  the  restricted 
area  to  which  they  resort  for  food ; the  desire  for  luxuries  to  which  they 
were  strangers  in  their  primitive  condition,  and  especially  the  desire  for 
personal  adornment,  together  with  a supply  of  more  effective  instruments 
for  hunting  and  trapping,  have  in  late  years,  during  the  rapid  settlement  of 
the  country  since  the  discovery  of  gold  and  the  building  of  railroads, 
greatly  stimulated  the  pursuit  of  animals  for  their  furs — the  wealth  and 
currency  of  the  savage.  On  their  hunting  excursions  they  systematically 
set  fire  to  forests  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  game.  This  is  a fact  well 
known  to  all  mountaineers.  Only  the  white  hunters  of  the  region  properly 
understand  why  these  fires  are  set,  it  being  usually  attributed  to  a wanton 
3 A R 


18  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  &TATES. 

desire  on  the  part  of  the  Indians  to  destroy  that  which  is  of  value  to  the 
white  man.  The  fires  can,  then,  be  very  greatly  curtailed  by  the  removal 
of  the  Indians. 

These  forest  regions  are  made  such  by  inexorable  climatic  conditions. 
They  are  high  among  the  summer  frosts.  The  plateaus  are  scored  by  deep 
canons,  and  the  mountains  are  broken  with  crags  and  peaks.  Perhaps  at 
some  distant  day  a hardy  people  will  occupy  little  glens  and  mountain 
valleys,  and  wrest  from  an  unwilling  soil  a scanty  subsistence  among  the 
rigors  of  a sub-arctic  climate.  Herdsmen  having  homes  below  may  in  the 
summer  time  drive  their  flocks  to  the  higher  lands  to  crop  the  scanty 
herbage.  Where  mines  are  found  mills  will  be  erected  and  little  towns 
spring  up,  but  in  general  habitations  will  be  remote.  The  forests  will  be 
dense  here  or  scattered  there,  as  the  trees  may  with  ease  or  difficulty  gain 
a foothold,  but  the  forest  regipns  will  remain  such,  to  be  stripped  of  timber 
here  and  there  from  time  to  time  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  people  who 
live  below;  but  once  protected  from  fires,  the  forests  will  increase  in 
extent  and  value.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  for  their  protection  must  be 
by  prohibiting  the  Indians  from  resorting  thereto  for  hunting  purposes,  and 
then  slowly,  as  the  lower  country  is  settled,  the  grasses  and  herbage  of  the 
highlands,  in  which  fires  generally  spread,  will  be  kept  down  by  summer 
pasturage,  and  the  dead  and  fallen  timber  will  be  removed  to  supply  the 
wants  of  people  below.  This  protection,  though  sure  to  come  at  last,  will 
be  tardy,  for  it  depends  upon  the  gradual  settlement  of  the  country;  and 
this  again  depends  upon  the  development  of  the  agricultural  and  mineral 
resources  and  the  establishment  of  manufactories,  and  to  a very  important 
extent  on  the  building  of  railroads,  for  the  whole  region  is  so  arid  that  its 
streams  are  small,  and  so  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea  that  its  few 
large  streams  descend  too  rapidly  for  navigation. 

AGRICULTURAL  AND  TIMBER  INDUSTRIES  DIFFERENTIATED. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  irrigable  lands  are  more  or  less  remote  from 
the  timber  lands;  and  as  the  larger  streams  are  employed  for  irrigation,  in 
the  future  the  extended  settlements  will  be  still  farther  away.  The  pastur- 
age lands  that  in  a general  way  intervene  between  the  irrigable  and  timber 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


19 


lands  have  a scanty  supply  of  dwarfed  forests,  as  already  described,  and 
the  people  in  occupying  these  lands  will  not  resort,  to  any  great  extent,  to 
the  mountains  for  timber ; hence  timber  and  agricultural  enterprises  will 
be  more  or  less  differentiated ; lumbermen  and  woodmen  will  furnish  to 
the  people  below  their  supply  of  building  and  fencing  material  and  fuel. 
In  some  cases  it  will  be  practicable  for  the  farmers  to  own  their  timber 
lands,  but  in  general  the  timber  will  be  too  remote,  and  from  necessity 
such  a division  of  labor  will  ensue. 

CULTIVATION  OF  TIMBER. 

In  the  irrigable  districts  much  timber  will  be  cultivated  along  the 
canals  and  minor  waterways.  It  is  probable  that  in  time  a sufficient 
amount  will  thus  be  raised  to  supply  the  people  of  the  irrigable  districts 
with  fuel  wherever  such  fuel  is  needed,  but  often  such  a want  will  not  exist, 
for  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  there  is  a great  abundance  of  lignitic  coals 
that  may  be  cheaply  mined.  All  these  coals  are  valuable  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, and  many  superior  grades  are  found.  These  coals  are  not  uniformly 
distributed,  but  generally  this  source  of  fuel  is  ample. 

PASTURAGE  LANDS. 

The  irrigable  lands  and  timber  lands  constitute  but  a small  fraction  of 
the  Arid  Region.  Between  the  lowlands  on  the  one  hand  and  the  high- 
lands on  the  other  is  found  a great  body  of  valley,  mesa,  hill,  and  low 
mountain  lands.  To  what  extent,  and  under  what  conditions  can  they  be 
utilized?  Usually  they  bear  a scanty  growth  of  grasses.  These  grasses 
are  nutritious  and  valuable  both  for  summer  and  winter  pasturage.  Their 
value  depends  upon  peculiar  climatic  conditions ; the  grasses  grow  to  a 
great  extent  in  scattered  bunches,  and  mature  seeds  in  larger  propor- 
tion perhaps  than  the  grasses  of  the  more  humid  regions.  In  general 
the  winter  aridity  is  so  great  that  the  grasses  when  touched  by  the 
frosts  are  not  washed  down  by  the  rains  and  snows  to  decay  on  the  moist 
soil,  but  stand  firmly  on  the  ground  all  winter  long  and  “ cure”,  forming  a 
quasi  uncut  hay.  Thus  the  grass  lands  are  of  value  both  in  summer  and 
winter.  In  a broad  way,  the  greater  or  lesser  abundance  of  the  grasses  is 


20  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


dependent  on  latitude  and  altitude ; the  higher  the  latitude  the  better  are 
the  grasses,  and  they  improve  as  the  altitude  increases.  In  very  low  alti- 
tudes and  latitudes  the  grasses  are  so  scant  as  to  be  of  no  value ; here  the 
true  deserts  are  found.  These  conditions  obtain  in  southern  California, 
southern  Nevada,  southern  Arizona,  and  southern  New  Mexico,  where  broad 
reaches  of  land  are  naked  of  vegetation,  but  in  ascending  to  the  higher 
lands  the  grass  steadily  improves.  Northward  the  deserts  soon  disappear, 
and  the  grass  becomes  more  and  more  luxuriant  to  our  northern  boundary. 
In  addition  to  the  desert  lands  mentioned,  other  large  deductions  must  be 
made  from  the  area  of  the  pasturage  lands.  There  are  many  districts  in 
which  the  “country  rock”  is  composed  of  incoherent  sands  and  clays; 
sometimes  sediments  of  ancient  Tertiary  lakes ; elsewhere  sediments  of 
more  ancient  Cretaceous  seas.  In  these  districts  perennial  or  intermittent 
streams  have  carved  deep  waterways,  and  the  steep  hills  are  ever  washed 
naked  by  fierce  but  infrequent  storms,  as  the  incoherent  rocks  are  unable  to 
withstand  the  beating  of  the  rain.  These  districts  are  known  - as  the  mau- 
vaises  terres  or  bad  lands  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region.  In  other  areas 
the  streams  have  carved  labyrinths  of  deep  gorges  and  the  waters  flow  at 
great  depths  below  the  general  surface.  The  lands  between  the  streams 
are  beset  with  towering  cliffs,  and  the  landscape  is  an  expanse  of  naked 
rock.  These  are  the  alcove  lands  and  canon  lands  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Region.  Still  other  districts  have  been  the  theater  of  late  volcanic  activity, 
and  broad  sheets  of  naked  lava  are  found ; cinder  cones  are  frequent,  and 
scoria  and  ashes  are  scattered  over  the  land.  These  are  the  lava-beds  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Region.  In  yet  other  districts,  low  broken  mountains 
are  found  with  rugged  spurs  and  craggy  crests.  Grasses  and  chaparral 
grow  among  the  rocks,  but  such  mountains  are  of  little  value  for  pasturage 
purposes. 

After  making  all  the  deductions,  there  yet  remain  vast  areas  of  valua- 
ble pasturage  land  bearing  nutritious  but  scanty  grass.  The  lands  along 
the  creeks  and  rivers  have  been  relegated  to  that  class  which  has  been 
described  as  irrigable,  hence  the  lands  under  consideration  are  away  from 
the  permanent  streams.  No  rivers  sweep  over  them  and  no  creeks  meander 
among  their  hills. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


21 


Though  living  water  is  not  abundant,  the  country  is  partially  supplied 
by  scattered  springs,  that  often  feed  little  brooks  whose  waters  never  join 
the  great  rivers  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  being  able  to  run  but  a short 
distance  from  their  fountains,  when  they  spread  among  the  sands  to  be 
reevaporated.  These  isolated  springs  and  brooks  will  in  many  cases  furnish 
the  water  necessary  for  the  herds  that  feed  on  the  grasses.  When  springs 
are  not  found  wells  may  be  sometimes  dug,  and  where  both  springs  and 
wells  fail  reservoirs  may  be  constructed.  Wherever  grass  grows  water 
may  be  found  or  saved  from  the  rains  in  sufficient  quantities  for  all  the 
herds  that  can  live  on  the  pasturage. 

PASTURAGE  FARMS  NEED  SMALL  TRACTS  OF  IRRIGABLE  LAND. 

The  men  engaged  in  stock  raising  need  small  areas  of  irrigable  lands 
for  gardens  and  fields  where  agricultural  products  can  be  raised  for  their 
own  consumption,  and  where  a store  of  grain  and  hay  may  be  raised  for 
their  herds  when  pressed  by  the  severe  storms  by  which  the  country  is 
sometimes  visited.  In  many  places  the  lone  springs  and  streams  are  suffi- 
cient for  these  purposes.  Another  and  larger  source  of  water  for  the  fertili- 
zation of  the  gardens  and  fields  of  the  pasturage  farms  is  found  in  the 
smaller  branches  and  upper  ramifications  of  the  larger  irrigating  streams. 
These  brooks  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  for  the  pasturage  farms  as  a 
supply  of  water  for  stock  gardens  and  small  fields  than  for  farms  where 
agriculture  by  irrigation  is  the  only  industry.  The  springs  and  brooks  of 
the  permanent  drainage  can  be  employed  in  making  farms  attractive  and 
profitable  where  large  herds  may  be  raised  in  many  great  districts  through- 
out the  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

The  conditions  under  which  these  pasturage  lands  can  be  employed 
are  worthy  of  consideration. 

THE  FARM  UNIT  FOR  PASTURAGE  LANDS. 

The  grass  is  so  scanty  that  the  herdsman  must  have  a large  area  for 
the  support  of  his  stock.  In  general  a quarter  section  of  land  alone  is  of 
no  value  to  him ; the  pasturage  it  affords  is  entirely  inadequate  to  the 
wants  of  a herd  that  the  poorest  man  needs  for  his  support. 


22  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Four  square  miles  may  be  considered  as  the  minimum  amount  neces- 
sary for  a pasturage  farm,  and  a still  greater  amount  is  necessary  for  the 
larger  part  of  the  lands ; that  is,  pasturage  farms,  to  be  of  any  practicable 
value,  must  be  of  at  least  2,560  acres,  and  in  many  districts  they  must  be 
much  larger.* 

REGULAR  DIVISION  LINES  FOR  PASTURAGE  FARMS  NOT  PRACTICABLE. 

Many  a brook  which  runs  but  a short  distance  will  afford  sufficient 
water  for  a number  of  pasturage  farms ; but  if  the  lands  are  surveyed  in 
regular  tracts  as  square  miles  or  townships,  all  the  water  sufficient  for  a 
number  of  pasturage  farms  may  fall  entirely  within  one  division.  If  the 
lands  are  thus  surveyed,  only  the  divisions  having  water  will  be  taken,  and 
the  farmer  obtaining  title  to  such  a division  or  farm  could  practically 
occupy  all  the  country  adjacent  by  owning  the  water  necessary  to  its  use. 
For  this  reason  divisional  surveys  should  conform  to  the  topography,  and 
be  so  made  as  to  give  the  greatest  number  of  water  fronts.  For  example, 
a brook  carrying  water  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of  200  acres  of  land 
might  be  made  to  serve  for  the  irrigation  of  20  acres  to  each  of  ten  farms, 
and  also  supply  the  water  for  all  the  stock  that  could  live  on  ten  pasturage 
farms,  and  ten  small  farmers  could  have  homes.  But  if  the  water  was 
owned  by  one  man,  nine  would  be  excluded  from  its  benefits  and  nine- 
tenths  of  the  land  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  government. 

FARM  RESIDENCES  SHOULD  BE  GROUPED. 

These  lands  will  maintain  but  a scanty  population.  The  homes  must 
necessarily  be  widely  scattered  from  the  fact  that  the  farm  unit  must  be 
large.  That  the  inhabitants  of  these  districts  may  have  the  benefits  of  the 
local  social  organizations  of  civilization — as  schools,  churches,  etc.,  and  the 
benefits  of  cooperation  in  the  construction  of  roads,  bridges,  and  other 

*For  the  determination  of  the  proper  unit  for  pasturage  farms  the  writer  has  conferred  with 
many  persons  living  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  who  have  had  experience.  His  own  observations 
have  been  extensive,  and  for  many  years  while  conducting  surveys  and  making  long  journeys  through 
the  Arid  Region  this  question  has  been  uppermost  in  his  mind.  He  fears  that  this  estimate  will  disap- 
point many  of  his  western  friends,  who  will  think  he  has  placed  the  minimum  too  low,  but  after  making 
the  most  thorough  examination  of  the  subject  possible  he  believes  the  amount  to  be  sufficient  for  the  best 
pasturage  lands,  especially  such  as  are  adjacent  to  the  minor  streams  of  the  general  drainage,  and  when 
these  have  been  taken  by  actual  settlors  the  size  of  the  pasturage  farms  may  be  increased  as  experience 
proves  necessary. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION. 


23 


local  improvements,  it  is  essential  that  the  residences  should  be  grouped 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  This  may  be  practically  accomplished  by 
making  the  pasturage  farms  conform  to  topographic  features  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  give  the  greatest  possible  number  of  water  fronts. 

PASTUKAGE  LANDS  CANNOT  BE  FENCED. 

The  great  areas  over  which  stock  must  roam  to  obtain  subsistence 
usually  prevents  the  practicability  of  fencing  the  lands.  It  will  not  pay  to 
fence  the  pasturage  fields,  hence  in  many  cases  the  lands  must  be  occupied 
► by  herds  roaming  in  common ; for  poor  men  cooperative  pasturage  is 
necessary,  or  communal  regulations  for  the  occupancy  of  the  ground  and 
for  the  division  of  the  increase  of  the  herds.  Such  communal  regulations 
have  already  been  devised  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

RECAPITULATION. 

The  Arid  Region  of  the  United  States  is  more  than  four- tenths  of  the 
area  of  the  entire  country  excluding  Alaska. 

In  the  Arid  Region  there  are  three  classes  of  lands,  namely,  irrigable 
lands,  timber  lands,  and  pasturage  lands. 

IRRIGABLE  LANDS. 

Within  the  Arid  Region  agriculture  is  dependent  upon  irrigation. 

The  amount  of  irrigable  land  is  but  a small  percentage  of  the  whole 

area. 

The  chief  development  of  irrigation  depends  upon  the  use  of  the  large 
streams. 

For  the  use  of  large  streams  cooperative  labor  or  capital  is  necessary. 

The  small  streams  should  not  be  made  to  serve  lands  so  as  to  interfere 
with  the  use  of  the  large  streams. 

Sites  for  reservoirs  should  be  set  apart,  in  order  that  no  hinderance 
may  be  placed  upon  the  increase  of  irrigation  by  the  storage  of  water. 

TIMBER  LANDS. 

The  timber  regions  are  on  the  .elevated  plateaus  and  mountains. 

The  timber  regions  constitute  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  Arid  Region. 


24  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  area  of  standing  timber  is  much  less  than  the  timber  region,  as 
the  forests  have  been  partially  destroyed  by  fire. 

The  timber  regions  cannot  be  used  as  farming  lands ; they  are  valua- 
ble for  forests  only. 

To  preserve  the  forests  they  must  be  protected  from  fire.  This  will 
be  largely  accomplished  by  removing  the  Indians. 

The  amount  of  timber  used  for  economic  purposes  will  be  more  than 
replaced  by  the  natural  growth. 

In  general  the  timber  is  too  far  from  the  agricultural  lands  to  be 
owned  and  utilized  directly  by  those  who  carry  on  farming  by  irrigation. 

A division  of  labor  is  necessary,  and  special  timber  industries  will  be 
developed,  and  hence  the  timber  lands  must  be  controlled  by  lumbermen 
and  woodmen. 

PASTURAGE  LANDS. 

The  grasses  of  the  pasturage  lands  are  scant,  and  the  lands  are  of 
value  only  in  large  quantities. 

The  farm  unit  should  not  be  less  than  2,560  acres. 

Pasturage  farms  need  small  tracts  of  irrigable  land ; hence  the  small 
streams  of  the  general  drainage  system  and  the  lone  springs  and  streams 
should  be  reserved  for  such  pasturage  farms. 

The  division  of  these  lands  should  be  controlled  by  topographic 
features  in  such  manner  as  to  give  the  greatest  number  of  water  fronts  to 
the  pasturage  farms. 

Residences , of  the  pasturage  farms  should  be  grouped,  in  order  to 
secure  the  benefits  of  local  social  organizations,  and  cooperation  in  public 
improvements. 

The  pasturage  lands  will  not  usually  be  fenced,  and  hence  herds  must 
roam  in  common. 

As  the  pasturage  lands  should  have  water  fronts  and  irrigable  tracts, 
and  as  the  residences  should  be  grouped,  and  as  the  lands  cannot  be  eco- 
nomically fenced  and  must  be  kept  in  common,  local  communal  regulations 
or  cooperation  is  necessary. 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOR  THE  ARID 
REGION. 

The  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  Arid  Region  will  depend  largely 
upon  a land  system  which  will  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  con- 
ditions and  facts  briefly  set  forth  in  the  former  chapter. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  may  acquire  title  to  public  lands  by 
purchase  at  public  sale  or  by  ordinary  “private  entry”,  and  in  virtue  of 
preemption,  homestead,  timber  culture,  and  desert  land  laws. 

Purchase  at  public  sale  may  be  effected  when  the  lands  are  offered  at 
public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder,  either  pursuant  to  proclamation  by  the 
President  or  public  notice  given  in  accordance  with  instructions  from  the 
General  Land  Office.  If  the  land  is  thus  offered  and  purchasers  are  not 
found,  they  are  then  subject  to  “private  entry  ” at  the  rate  of  $1.25  or  $2.50 
per  acre.  For  a number  of  years  it  has  not  been  the  practice  of  the  Gov-, 
ernment  to  dispose  of  the  public  lands  by  these  methods ; but  the  public 
lands  of  the  southern  states  are  now,  or  soon  will  be,  thus  offered  for  sale. 

Any  citizen  may  preempt  160  acres  of  land,  and  by  settling  thereon, 
erecting  a dwelling,  and  making  other  improvements,  and  by  paying  $ 1 .25 
per  acre  in  some  districts,  without  the  boundaries  of  railroad  grants,  and 
$2.50  within  the  boundaries  of  railroad  grants  in  others,  may  acquire  title 
thereto.  The  preemption  right  can  be  exercised  but  once.  No  person  can 
exercise  the  preemption  right  who  is  already  the  owner  of  320  acres  of  land. 

Any  citizen  may,- under  the  homestead  privilege,  obtain  title  to  160 
acres  of  land  valued  at  $1.25  per  acre,  or  80  acres  valued  at  the  rate  of 
$2.50,  by  payment  of  $5  in  the  first  case  and  $10  in  the  last,  and  by 
residing  on  the  land  for  the  term  of  five  years  and  by  making  certain 
improvements. 


4 A R 


25 


26 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  time  of  residence  is  shortened  for  persons  who  have  served  in 
the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  any  such  person  may  homestead 
160  acres  of  land  valued  at  $2.50  per  acre. 

Any  citizen  may  take  advantage  of  both  the  homestead  and  preemption 
privileges. 

Under  the  timber  culture  act,  any  citizen  who  is  the  head  of  a family 
majr  acquire  title  to  160  acres  of  land  in  the  prairie  region  by  cultivating 
timber  thereon  in  certain  specific  quantities;  the  title  can  be  acquired  at  the 
expiration  of  eight  years  from  the  date  of  entry. 

Any  citizen  may  acquire  title  to  one  section  of  desert  land  (irrigable 
lands  as  described  in  this  paper)  by  the  payment  at  the  time  of  entry  of  25 
cents  per  acre,  and  by  redeeming  the  same  by  irrigation  within  a period  of 
three  years  and  by  the  payment  of  $1  per  acre  at  the  expiration  of  that 
time,  and  a patent  will  then  issue. 

Provision  is  also  made  for  the  disposal  of  public  lands  as  town  sites. 

From  time  to  time  land  warrants  have  been  issued  by  the  Government 
as  bounties  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  for  other  purposes.  These  land 
warrants  have  found  their  way  into  the  market,  and  the  owners  thereof 
are  entitled  to  enter  Government  lands  in  the  quantities  specified  in  the 
warrants. 

Agricultural  scrip  has  been  issued  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  and 
endowing  agricultural  schools.  A part  of  this  scrip  has  been  used  by  the 
schools  in  locating  lands  for  investment.  Much  of  the  scrip  has  found  its 
way  into  the  market  and  is  used  by  private  individuals.  Warrants  and 
scrip  can  be  used  when  lands  have  been  offered  for  sale,  and  preemptors 
can  use  them  in  lieu  of  money. 

Grants  of  lands  have  been  made  to  railroad  and  other  companies,  and 
as  these  railroads  have  been  completed  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  companies 
have  obtained  titles  to  the  whole  or  proportional  parts  of  the  lands  thus 
granted. 

Where  the  railroads  are  unfinished  the  titles  are  inchoate  to  an  extent 
proportional  to  the  incomplete  parts. 

With  small  exceptions,  the  lands  of  the  Arid  Region  have  not  been 
offered  for  sale  at  auction  or  by  private  entry. 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOR  THE  ARID  REGION. 


27 


The  methods,  then,  by  which  the  lands  under  consideration  can  be 
obtained  from  the  Government  are  by  taking  advantage  of  the  preemption, 
homestead,  timber  culture,  or  desert  land  privileges. 

IRRIGABLE  LANDS. 

By  these  methods  adequate  provision  is  made  for  actual  settlers  on  all 
irrigable  lands  that  are  dependent  on  the  waters  of  minor  streams;  but  these 
methods  are  insufficient  for  the  settlement  of  the  irrigable  lands  that  depend 
on  the  larger  streams,  and  also  for  the  pasturage  lands  and  timber  lands, 
and  in  this  are  included  nearly  all  the  lands  of  the  Arid  Region.  If  the 
irrigable  lands  are  to  be  sold,  it  should  be  in  quantities  to  suit  purchasers, 
and  but  one  condition  should  be  imposed,  namely,  that  the  lands  should 
be  actually  irrigated  before  the  title  is  transferred  to  the  purchaser.  This 
method  would  provide  for  the  redemption  of  these  lands  by  irrigation 
through  the  employment  of  capital.  If  these  lands  are  to  be  reserved  for 
actual  settlers,  in  small  quantities,  to  provide  homes  for  poor  men,  on  the 
principle  involved  in  the  homestead  laws,  a general  law  should  be  enacted 
under  which  a number  of  persons  would  be  able  to  organize  and  settle  on 
irrigable  districts,  and  establish  their  own  rules  and  regulations  for  the  use 
of  the  water  and  subdivision  of  the  lands,  but  in  obedience  to  the  general 
provisions  of  the  law. 

TIMBER  LANDS. 

The  timber  lands  cannot  be  acquired  by  any  of  the  methods  provided 
in  the  preemption,  homestead,  timber  culture,  and  desert  land  laws,  from 
the  fact  that  they  are  not  agricultural  lands.  Climatic  conditions  make 
these  methods  inoperative.  Under  these  laws  “ dummy  entries”  are  some- 
times made.  A man  wishing  to  obtain  the  timber  from  a tract  of  land  will 
make  homestead  or  preemption  entries  by  himself  or  through  his  employes 
without  intending  to  complete  the  titles,  being  able  thus  to  hold  these  lands 
for  a time  sufficient  to  strip  them  of  their  timber. 

This  is  thought  to  be  excusable  by  the  people  of  the  country,  as  tim- 
ber is  necessary  for  their  industries,  and  the  timber  lands  cannot  honestly 
be  acquired  by  those  who  wish  to  engage  in  timber  enterprises.  Provision 
should  be  made  by  which  the  timber  can  be  purchased  by  persons  or  com- 


28  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


panies  desiring  to  engage  in  the  lumber  or  wood  business,  and  in  such 
quantities  as  may  be  necessary  to  encourage  the  construction  of  mills,  the 
erection  of  flumes,  the  making  of  roads,  and  other  improvements  necessary 
to  the  utilization  of  the  timber  for  the  industries  of  the  country. 

PASTURAGE  LANDS. 

If  divisional  surveys  were  extended  over  the  pasturage  lands,  favorable 
sites  at  springs  and  along  small  streams  would  be  rapidly  taken  under  the 
homestead  and  preemption  privileges  for  the  nuclei  of  pasturage  farms. 

Unentered  lands  contiguous  to  such  pasturage  farms  could  be  con- 
trolled to  a greater  or  less  extent  by  those  holding  the  water,  and  in  this 
manner  the  pasturage  of  the  country  would  be  rendered  practicable.  But 
the  great  body  of  land  would  remain  in  the  possession  of  the  Government; 
the  farmers  owning  the  favorable  spots  could  not  obtain  possession  of  the 
adjacent  lands  by  homestead  or  preemption  methods,  and  if  such  adjacent 
lands  were  offered  for  sale,  they  could  not  afford  to  pay  the  Government 
price. 

Certain  important  facts  relating  to  the  pasturage  farms  may  be  advan- 
tageously restated. 

' The  farm  unit  should  not  be  less  than  2,560  acres:  the  pasturage  farms 
need  small  bodies  of  irrigable  land;  the  division  of  these  lands  should  be 
controlled  by  topographic  features  to  give  water  fronts ; residences  of  the 
pasturage  kinds  should  be  grouped ; the  pasturage  farms  cannot  be  fenced — 
they  must  be  occupied  in  common. 

The  homestead  and  preemption  methods  are  inadequate  to  meet  these 
conditions.  A general  law  should  be  enacted  to  provide  for.  the  organiza- 
tion of  pasturage  districts,  in  which  the  residents  should  have  the  right  to 
make  their  own  regulations  for  the  division  of  the  lands,  the  use  of  the 
water  for  irrigation  and  for  watering  the  stock,  and  for  the  pasturage  of  the 
lands  in  common  or  in  severalty.  But  each  division  or  pasturage  farm  of 
the  district  should  be  owned  by  an  individual;  that  is,  these  lands  could  be 
settled  and  improved  by  the  “colony”  plan  better  than  by  any  other.  It 
should  not  be  understood  that  the  colony  system  applies  only  to  such  per- 
sons as  migrate  from  the  east  in  a body ; any  number  of  persons  already 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOR  THE  ARID  REGION. 


29 


in  this  region  could  thus  organize.  In  fact  very  large  bodies  of  these  lands 
would  be  taken  by  people  who  are  already  in  the  country  and  who  have 
herds  with  which  they  roam  about  seeking  water  and  grass,  and  making  no 
permanent  residences  and  no  valuable  improvements.  Such  a plan  would 
give  immediate  relief  to  all  these  people. 

This  district  or  colony  system  is  not  untried  in  this  country.  It  is 
essentially  the  basis  of  all  the  mining  district  organizations  of  the  west. 
Under  it  the  local  rules  and  regulations  for  the  division  of  mining  lands, 
the  use  of  water,  timber,  etc.,  are  managed  better  than  they  could  possibly 
be  under  specific  statutes  of  the  United  States.  The  association  of  a 
number  of  people  prevents  single  individuals  from  having  undue  control  of 
natural  privileges,  and  secures  an  equitable  division  of  mineral  lands ; and 
all  this  is  secured  in  obedience  to  statutes  of  the  United  States  providing 
general  regulations. 

Customs  are  forming  and  regulations  are  being  made  by  common  con- 
sent among  the  people  in  some  districts  already ; but  these  provide  no 
means  for  the  acquirement  of  titles  to  land,  no  incentive  is  given  to  the 
improvement  of  the  country,  and  no  legal  security  to  pasturage  rights. 

If,  then,  the  irrigable  lands  can  be  taken  in  quantities  to  suit  pur- 
chasers, and  the  colony  system  provided  for  poor  men  who  wish  to  cooperate 
in  this  industry;  if  the  timber  lands  are  opened  to  timber  enterprises,  and 
the  pasturage  lands  offered  to  settlement  under  a colony  plan  like  that  indi- 
cated above,  a land  system  would  be  provided  for  the  Arid  Region  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  all  persons  desiring  to  become  actual  settlers  therein. 
Thousands  of  men  who  now  own  herds  and  live  a semi-nomadic  life  ; thou- 
sands of  persons  who  now  roam  from  mountain  range  to  mountain  range 
prospecting  for  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals ; thousands  of  men  who 
repair  to  that  country  and  return  disappointed  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
practically  debarred  from  the  public  lands ; and  thousands  of  persons  in 
the  eastern  states  without  employment,  or  discontented  with  the  rewards 
of  labor,  would  speedily  find  homes  in  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

In  making  these  recommendations,  the  wisdom  and  beneficence  of  the 
homestead  system  have  been  recognized  and  the  principles  involved  have 
been  considered  paramount. 


30  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


To  give  more  definite  form  to  some  of  the  recommendations  for  legis- 
lation made  above,  two  bills  have  been  drawn,  one  relating  to  the  organi- 
zation of  irrigation  districts,  the  other  to  pasturage  districts.  These  bills 
are  presented  here.  It  is  not  supposed  that  these  forms  are  the  best  that 
could  be  adopted;  perhaps  they  could  be  greatly  improved;  but  they 
have  been  carefully  considered,  and  it  is  believed  they  embody  the  recom- 
mendations made  above. 

A BILL  to  authorize  the  organization  of  irrigation  districts  hy  homestead  settlements  upon  the  public 
lands  requiring  irrigation  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled , That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  nine 
or  more  persons  who  may  be  entitled  to  acquire  a homestead  from  the 
public  lands,  as  provided  for  in  sections  twenty-two  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  to  twenty-three  hundred  and  seventeen,  inclusive,  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  States,  to  settle  an  irrigation  district  and  to  acquire 
titles  to  irrigable  lands  under  the  limitations  and  conditions  hereinafter 
provided. 

Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  persons  mentioned  in  section 
one  of  this  act  to  organize  an  irrigation  district  in  accordance  with  a form 
and  general  regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of  the 
General  Land  Office,  which  shall  provide  for  a recorder;  and  said  persons 
may  make  such  by-laws,  not  in  conflict  with  said  regulations,  as  they 
may  deem  wise  for  the  use  of  waters  in  such  district  for  irrigation  or  other 
purposes,  and  for  the  division  of  the  lands  into  such  parcels  as  they  may 
deem  most  convenient  for  irrigating  purposes;  but  the  same  must  accord 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  That  all  lands  in  those  portions  of  the  United  States  where 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture,  which  can  be  redeemed  by  irrigation 
and  for  which  there  is  accessible  water  for  such  purpose,  not  otherwise 
utilized  or  lawfully  claimed,  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of  three  hundred 
and  twenty  acres  of  land,  shall,  for  the  purposes  set  forth  in  this  act,  be 
classed  as  irrigable  lands. 

Sec.  4.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  requisite  number  of  persons,  as 
designated  in  section  one  of  this  act,  to  select  from  the  public  lands  desig- 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOR  THE  ARID  REGION. 


31 


nated  as  irrigable  lands  in  section  three  of  this  act,  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
thereon,  an  amount  of  land  not  exceeding  eighty  acres  to  each  person;  but 
the  lands  thus  selected  by  the  persons  desiring  to  organize  an  irrigation 
district  shall  be  in  one  continuous  tract,  and  the  same  shall  be  subdivided 
as  the  regulations  and  by-laws  of  the  irrigation  district  shall  prescribe: 
Provided , That  no  one  person  shall  be  entitled  to  more  than  eighty  acres. 

Sec.  5.  That  whenever  such  irrigation  district  shall  be  organized  the 
recorder  of  such  district  shall  notify  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  land 
district  in  which  such  irrigation  district  is  situate,  and  also  the  Surveyor- 
General  of  the  United  States,  that  such  irrigation  district  has  been  organ- 
ized; and  each  member  of  the  organization  of  said  district  shall  file  a 
declaration  with  the  register  and  receiver  of  said  land  district  that  he  has 
settled  upon  a tract  of  land  within  such  irrigation  district,  not  exceeding  the 
prescribed  amount,  with  the  intention  of  residing  thereon  and  obtaining  a 
title  thereto  under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  6.  That  if  within  three  years  after  the  organization  of  the  irriga- 
tion district  the  claimants  therein,  in  their  organized  capacity,  shall  apply 
for  a survey  of  said  district  to  the  Surveyor-General  of  the  United  States, 
he  shall  cause  a proper  survey  to  be  made,  together  with  a plat  of  the  same ; 
and  on  this  plat  each  tract  or  parcel  of  land  into  which  the  district  is  divided, 
such  tract  or  parcel  being  the  entire  claim  of  one  person,  shall  be  numbered, 
and  the  measure  of  every  angle,  the  length  of  every  line  in  the  boundaries 
thereof,  and  the  number  of  acres  in  each  tract  or  parcel  shall  be  inscribed 
thereon,  and  the  name  of  the  district  shall  appear  on  the  plat  in  full;  and 
this  plat  and  the  field-notes  of  such  survey  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Sur- 
veyor-General of  the  United  States;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  that  officer 
to  examine  the  plat  and  notes  therewith  and  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  sur- 
vey in  such  manner  as  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  may 
prescribe;  and  if  it  shall  appear  after  such  examination  and  proving  that 
correct  surveys  have  been  made,  and  that  the  several  tracts  claimed  are 
within  the  provisions  of  this  act,  he  shall  certify  the  same  to  the  register  of 
the  land  district,  and  shall  thereupon  furnish  to  the  said  register  of  the  land 
district,  and  to  the  recorder  of  the  irrigation  district,  and  to  the  recorder  or 
clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  irrigation  district  is  situate,  and  to  the 


32  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  a copy  thereof  to  each,  and  the 
original  shall  be  retained  in  the  office  of  the  Surveyor- General  of  the  United 
States  for  preservation. 

Sec.  7.  That  each  person  applying  for  the  benefits  of  this  act  shall,  in 
addition  to  compliance  therewith,  conform  to  the  methods  provided  for  the 
acquirement  of  a homestead  in  sections  twenty-two  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  to  twenty-three  hundred  and  seventeen,  inclusive,  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  States,  so  far  as  they  are  applicable  and  consistent 
with  this  act,  and  shall  also  furnish  such  evidence  as  the  Commissioner  of 
the  General  Land  Office  may  require  that  such  land  has  actually  been  re- 
deemed by  irrigation,  and  may  thereupon  obtain  a patent : Provided , That 
no  person  shall  obtain  a patent  under  this  act  to  any  coal  lands,  town  sites, 
or  tracts  of  public  lands  on  which  towns  may  have  been  built,  or  to  any 
mine  of  gold,  silver,  cinnabar,  copper,  or  other  mineral  for  the  sale  or  dis- 
posal of  which  provision  has  been  made  by  law. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  lands  patented  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall 
be  described  as  irrigation  farms,  and  designated  by  the  number  of  the  tract 
or  parcel  and  the  name  of  the  irrigation  district. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  right  to  the  water  necessary  to  the  redemption  of  an 
irrigation  farm  shall  inhere  in  the  land  from  the  time  of  the  organization 
of  the  irrigation  district,  and  in  all  subsequent  conveyances  the  right  to  the 
water  shall  pass  with  the  title  to  the  land.  But  if  after  the  lapse  of  five 
years  from  the  date  of  the  organization  of  the  district  the  owner  of  any 
irrigation  farm  shall  have  failed  to  irrigate  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the 
same,  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  necessary  water  to  irrigate  the  unre- 
claimed lands  shall  thereupon  lapse,  and  any  subsequent  right  to  water 
necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  said  unreclaimed  land  shall  be  acquired 
only  by  priority  of  utilization. 

Sec.  10.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for^any  person  entitled  to  acquire  a 
homestead  from  the  public  lands  as  designated  in  section  one  of  this  act  to 
settle  on  an  irrigation  farm  contiguous  to  any  irrigation  district  after  such 
district  lias  been  organized  by  making  the  notifications  and  declaration 
provided  for  in  section  five  of  this  act,  and  by  notifying  the  recorder  of 
such  irrigation  district,  and  also  by  complying  with  the  rules  and  regula- 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOE  TIIE  ARID  REGION. 


33 


tions  of  such  district ; and  such  person  may  thereupon  become  a member 
of  the  district  and  entitled  to  the  same  privileges  as  the  other  members 
thereof;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  recorder  of  the  irrigation  district 
to  notify  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  land  district,  and  also  the  Sur- 
veyor-General of  the  United  States,  that  such  claim  has  been  made ; and 
such  person  may  obtain  a patent  to  the  same  under  the  conditions  and 
by  conforming  to  the  methods  prescribed  in  this  act : Provided , That  the 
water  necessary  for  the  irrigation  of  such  farm  can  be  taken  without 
injury  to  the  rights  of  any  person  who  shall  have  entered  an  irrigation  farm 
in  such  district : And  provided  further , That  the  right  to  the  water  neces- 
sary to  the  redemption  of  such  irrigation  farm  shall  inhere  in  the  land  from 
the  time  when  said  person  becomes  a member  of  said  district,  and  in  all 
subsequent  conveyances  the  right  to  the  water  shall  pass  with  the  title  to 
the  land;  but  if,  after  the  lapse  of  five  years  from  the  date  of  said  notifica- 
tions and  declaration,  the  owner  of  said  irrigation  farm  shall  have  failed  to 
irrigate  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  same,  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  neces- 
sary water  to  irrigate  the  unreclaimed  lands  shall  thereupon  lapse,  and  any 
subsequent  right  to  the  water  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  the  said  unre- 
claimed land  shall  be  acquired  only  by  priority  of  utilization. 

A BILL  to  authorize  the  organization  of  pasturage  districts  by  homestead  settlements  on  the  public 
lands  which  are  of  value  for  pasturage  purposes  only. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled , That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  nine  or  more 
persons  who  may  be  entitled  to  acquire  a homestead  from  the  public  lands, 
as  provided  for  in  section  twenty-two  hundred  and  eighty-nine  to  twenty- 
three  hundred  and  seventeen,  inclusive,  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States,  to  settle  a pasturage  district  and  to  acquire  titles  to  pastur- 
age lands  under  the  limitations  and  conditions  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  persons  mentioned  in  section 
one  of  this  act  to  organize  a pasturage  district  in  accordance  with  a form 
and  general  regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office,  which  shall  provide  for  a recorder;  and  said  persons  may 
make  such  by-laws,  not  in  conflict  with  said  regulations,  as  they  may  deem 
wise  for  the  use  of  waters  in  such  district  for  irrigation  or  other  purposes, 
5 a n 


34  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  for  the  pasturage  of  the  lands  severally  or  conjointly ; but  the  same 
must  accord  with  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  That  all  lands  in  those  portions  of  the  United  States  where 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture  shall  be,  for  the  purposes  set  forth  in 
this  act,  classed  as  pasturage  lands,  excepting  all  tracts  of  land  of  not  less 
than  three  hundred  and  twenty  acres  which  can  be  redeemed  by  irrigation, 
and  where  there  is  sufficient  accessible  water  for  such  purpose  not  other- 
wise utilized  or  lawfully  claimed,  and  all  lands  bearing  timber  of  commer- 
cial value. 

Sec.  4.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  requisite  number  of  persons, 
as  designated  in  section  one  of  this  act,  to  select  from  the  public  lands 
designated  as  pasturage  lands  in  section  three  of  this  act,  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  thereon,  an  amount  of  land  not  exceeding  two  thousand  five 
hundred  and  sixty  acres  to  each  person ; but  the  lands  thus  selected  by 
the  persons  desiring  to  organize  a pasturage  district  shall  be  in  one  con- 
tinuous tract,  and  the  same  shall  be  subdivided  as  the  regulations  and 
by-laws  of  the  pasturage  district  shall  prescribe : Provided , That  no  one 
person  shall  be  entitled  to  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty 
acres,  and  this  may  be  in  one  continuous  body,  or  it  may  be  in  two 
parcels,  one  for  irrigation,  the  other  for  pasturage  purposes ; but  the  parcel 
for  irrigation  shall  not  exceed  twenty  acres : And  provided  further , That 
no  tract  or  tracts  of  land  selected  for  any  one  person  shall  be  entitled  to 
a greater  amount  of  water  for  irrigating  purposes  than  that  sufficient  for 
the  reclamation  and  cultivation  of  twenty  acres  of  land ; nor  shall  the 
tract  be  selected  in  such  a manner  along  a stream  as  to  monopolize  a 
greater  amount. 

Sec.  6.  That  whenever  such  pasturage  district  shall  be  organized,  the 
recorder  of  such  district  shall  notify  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  land 
district  in  which  such  pasturage  district  is  situate,  and  also  the  Surveyor- 
General  of  the  United  States,  that  such  pasturage  district  has  been  organ- 
ized ; and  each  member  of  the  organization  of  said  district  shall  file  a 
declaration  with  the  register  and  receiver  of  said  land  district  that  he  has 
settled  upon  a tract  of  land  within  such  pasturage  district,  not  exceeding 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOE  THE  A1JID  KEG  ION. 


35 


the  prescribed  amount,  with  the  intention  of  residing  thereon  and  obtaining 
a title  thereto  under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  6.  That  if  within  three  years  after  the  organization  of  the  pastur- 
age district  the  claimants  therein,  in  their  organized  capacity,  shall  apply 
for  a survey  of  said  district  to  the  Surveyor-General  of  the  United  States, 
he  shall  cause  a proper  survey  to  be  made,  together  with  a plat  of  the 
same;  and  on  this  plat  each  tract  or  parcel  of  land  into  which  the  district 
is  divided  shall  be  numbered,  and  the  measure  of  every  angle,  the  length 
of  every  line  in  the  boundaries  thereof,  and  the  number  of  acres  in  each 
tract  or  parcel,  shall  be  inscribed  thereon,  and  the  name  of  the  district  shall 
appear  on  the  plat  in  full ; and  this  plat  and  the  field-notes  of  such  survey 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  Surveyor-General  of  the  United  States;  and  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  that  officer  to  examine  the  plat  and  notes  therewith 
and  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  survey  in  such  manner  as  the  Commisioner 
of  the  General  Land  Office  may  prescribe;  and  if  it  shall  appear  after 
such  examination  and  proving  that  correct  surveys  have  been  made,  and 
that  the  several  tracts  claimed  are  within  the  provisions  of  this  act,  he  shall 
certify  the  same  to  the  register  of  the  land  district,  and  shall  furnish  to  the 
said  register  of  the  land  district,  and  to  the  recorder  of  the  pasturage  dis- 
trict, and  to  the  recorder  or  clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  pasturage 
district  is  situate,  and  to  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office,  a 
copy  thereof  to  each;  and  the  original  shall  be  retained  in  the  office  of 
the  Surveyor-General  of  the  United  States  for  preservation. 

Sec.  7.  That  each  person  applying  for  the  benefits  of  this  act  shall, 
in  addition  to  compliance  therewith,  conform  to  the  methods  provided  for 
the  acquirement  of  a homestead  in  sections  twenty-two  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine  to  twenty-three  hundred  and  seventeen,  inclusive,  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  States,  so  far  as  they  are  applicable  and  consistent 
with  this  act,  and  may  thereupon  obtain  a patent:  Provided , That  no 
person  shall  obtain  a patent  under  this  act  to  any  coal  lands,  town  sites,  or 
tracts  of  public  lands  on  which  towns  may  have  been  built,  or  to  any  mine 
of  gold,  silver,  cinnabar,  copper,  or  other  mineral  for  the  sale  or  disposal  of 
which  provision  has  been  made  by  law. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  lands  patented  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall 


36  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


be  described  as  pasturage,  farms,  and  designated  by  the  number  of  the 
tract  or  parcel  and  the  name  of  the  pasturage  district. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  right  to  the  water  necessary  to  the  redemption  of  an 
irrigation  tract  of  a pasturage  farm  shall  inhere  in  the  land  from  the  time 
of  the  organization  of  the  pasturage  district,  and  in  all  subsequent  convey- 
ances the  right  to  the  water  shall  pass  with  the  title  to  the  tract;  but  if 
after  a lapse  of  five  years  from  the  date  of  the  organization  of  the  pasturage 
district  the  owner  of  any  pasturage  farm  shall  have  failed  to  irrigate  the 
whole  or  any  part  of  the  irrigable  tract  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  neces- 
sary water  to  irrigate  the  unreclaimed  land  shall  thereupon  lapse,  and  any 
subsequent  right  to  water  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  such  unreclaimed 
land  shall  be  acquired  only  by  priority  of  utilization: 

Sec.  10.  That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  person  entitled  to  acquire  a 
homestead  from  the  public  lands  designated,  in  section  one  of  this  act  to 
settle  on  a pasturage  farm  contiguous  to  any  pasturage  district  after  such 
district  has  been  organized,  by  making  the  notifications  and  declaration 
provided  for  in  section  five  of  this  act,  and  by  notifying  the  recorder  of 
such  pasturage  district,  and  also  by  complying  with  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  such  district;  and  such  person  may  thereupon  become  a member 
of  the  district  and  entitled  to  the  same  privileges  as  the  other  members 
thereof ; and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  recorder  of  the  pasturage  district 
to  notify  the  register  and  receiver  of  the  land  district,  and  also  the  Sur- 
veyor-General of  the  United  States,  that  such  claim  has  been  made;  and 
such  person  may  obtain  a patent  to  the  same  under  the  conditions  and  by 
conforming  to  the  methods  prescribed  in  this  act:  Provided , That  the  water 
necessary  for  such  farm  can  be  taken  without  injury  to  the  rights  of  any 
person  who  shall  have  entered  a pasturage  farm  in  such  district:  And 
provided  further , That  the  right  to  the  water  necessary  to  the  redemption  of 
the  irrigable  tract  of  such  pasturage  farm  shall  inhere  in  the  land  from  the 
time  when  said  person  becomes  a member  of  said  district,  and  in  all  sub- 
sequent conveyances  the  right  to  the  water  shall  pass  with  the  title  to  the 
land;  but  if,  after  the  lapse  of  five  years  from  the  date  of  such  notifications  and 
declaration,  the  owner  of  said  irrigable  tract  shall  have  failed  to  irrigate  the 
whole  or  any  part  of  the  same,  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  necessary  water 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOli  TIIE  AMD  REGION. 


37 


to  irrigate  the  unreclaimed  land  shall  thereupon  lapse,  and  any  subsequent 
right  to  the  water  necessary  to  the  cultivation  of  the  said  unreclaimed  land 
shall  be  acquired  only  by  priority  of  utilization. 

The  provisions  in  the  submitted  bills  by  which  the  settlers  themselves 
may  parcel  their  lands  may  need  further  comment  and  elucidation.  If  the 
whole  of  the  Arid  Region  was  yet  unsettled,  it  might  be  wise  for  the  Gov- 
ernment to  undertake  the  parceling  of  the  lands  and  employ  skilled  engi- 
neers to  do  the  work,  whose  duties  could  then  be  performed  in  advance  of 
settlement.  It  is  manifest  that  this  work  cannot  be  properly  performed 
under  the  contract  system  ; it  would  be  necessary  to  employ  persons  of 
skill  and  judgment  under  a salary  system.  The  mining  industries  which 
have  sprung  up  in  the  country  since  the  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  in  1849,  have  stimulated  immigration,  so  that  settlements  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  Arid  Region ; mining  towns  have  sprung  up  on  the 
flanks  of  almost  every  great  range  of  mountains,  and  adjacent  valleys 
have  been  occupied  by  persons  desiring  to  engage  in  agriculture.  Many  of 
the  lands  surveyed  along  the  minor  streams  have  been  entered,  and  the 
titles  to  these  lands  are  in  the  hands  of  actual  settlers.  Many  pasturage 
' farms,  or  ranches,  as  they  are  called  locally,  have  been  established  through- 
out the  country.  These  remarks  are  true  of  every  state  and  territory  in 
the  Arid  Region.  In  the  main  these  ranches  or  pasturage  farms  are  on  Gov- 
ernment land,  and  the  settlers  are  squatters,  and  some  are  not  expecting  to 
make  permanent  homes.  Many  otheT  persons  have  engaged  in  pasturage 
enterprises  without  having  made  fixed  residences,  but  move  about  from  place 
to  place  with  their  herds.  It  is  now  too  late  for  the  Government  to  parcel 
the  pasturage  lands  in  advance  of  the  wants  of  settlers  in  the  most  avail- 
able way,  so  as  to  closely  group  residences  and  give  water  privileges  to  the 
several  farms.  Many  of  the  settlers  are  actually  on  the  ground,  and  are 
clamoring  for  some  means  by  which  they  can  obtain  titles  to  pasturage  farms 
of  an  extent  adequate  to  their  wants,  and  the  tens  of  thousands  of  individual 
interests  would  make  the  problem  a difficult  one  for  the  officers  of  the  Gov- 
ernment to  solve.  A system  less  arbitrary  than  that  of  the  rectangular 
surveys  now  in  vogue,  and  requiring  unbiased  judgment,  overlooking  the 


38  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


interests  of  single  individuals  and  considering  only  the  interests  of  the 
greatest  number,  would  meet  with  local  opposition.  The  surveyors  them- 
selves would  be  placed  under  many  temptations,  and  would  be  accused — 
sometimes  rightfully  perhaps,  sometimes  unjustly — of  favoritism  and  cor- 
ruption, and  the  service  would  be  subject  to  the  false  charges  of  disappointed 
men  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  truthful  charges  against  corrupt  men  on  the 
other.  In  many  ways  it  would  be  surrounded  with  difficulties  and  fall  into 
disrepute. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  believed  that  it  is  best  to  permit  the 
people  to  divide  their  lands  for  themselves; — not  in  a way  by  which  each 
man  may  take  what  he  pleases  for  himself,  but  by  providing  methods  by 
which  these  settlers  may  organize  and  mutually  protect  each  other  from  the 
rapacity  of  individuals.  The  lands,  as  lands,  are  of  but  slight  value,  as  they 
cannot  be  used  for  ordinary  agricultural  purposes,  i.  e.,  the  cultivation  of 
crops  ; but  their  value  consists  in  the  scant  grasses  which  they  spontaneously 
produce,  and  these  values  can  be  made  available  only  by  the  use  of  the 
waters  necessary  for  the  subsistence  of  stock,  and  that  necessary  for  the  small 
amount  of  irrigable  land  which  should  be  attached  to  the  several  pasturage 
farms.  Thus,  practically,  all  values  inhere  in  the  water,  and  an  equitable 
division  of  the  waters  can  be  made  only  by  a wise  system  of  parceling  the 
lands  ; and  the  people  in  organized  bodies  can  well  be  trusted  with  this  right, 
while  individuals  could  not  thus  be  trusted.  These  considerations  have  led 
to  the  plan  suggested  in  the  bill  submitted  for  the  organization  of  pasturage 
districts. 

In  like  manner,  in  the  bill  designed  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  a plan 
for  the  organization  of  irrigation  districts,  the  same  principle  is  involved, 
viz,  that  of  permitting  the  settlers  themselves  to  subdivide  the  lands  into 
such  tracts  as  they  may  desire. 

The  lands  along  the  streams  are  not  valuable  for  agricultural  purposes 
in  continuous  bodies  or  squares,  but  only  in  irrigable  tracts  governed  by 
the  levels  of  the  meandering  canals  which  carry  the  water  for  irrigation,  and 
it  would  be  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  eveiy  such  district  if  the  lands  could 
be  divided  into  parcels,  governed  solely  by  the  conditions  under  which  the 
water  could  be  distributed  over  them;  and  such  parceling  cannot  be  properly 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOE  THE  ARID  REGION. 


39 


done  prior  to  the  occupancy  of  the  lands,  but  can  only  be  made  pari  passu 
with  the  adoption  of  a system  of  canals  ; and  the  people  settling1  on  these 
lands  should  be  allowed  the  privilege  of  dividing  the  lands  into  such  tracts 
as  may  be  most  available  for  such  purposes,  and  they  should  not  be  hamp- 
ered with  the  present  arbitrary  system  of  dividing  the  lands  into  rectangular 
tracts. 

Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  land  system  of  the 
eastern  states,  and  know  the  difficulty  of  properly  identifying  or  determin- 
ing the  boundaries  of  many  of  the  parcels  or  tracts  of  land  into  which  the 
country  is  divided,  and  who  appreciate  the  cumbrous  method  of  describing 
such  lands  by  metes  and  bounds  in  conveyances,  may  at  first  thought 
object  to  the  plan  of  parceling  lands  into  irregular  tracts.  They  may  fear 
that  if  the  system  of  parceling  the  lands  into  townships  and  sections,  and 
describing  the  same  in  conveyances  by  reference  to  certain  great  initial 
points  in  the  surveys  of  the  lands,  is  abandoned,  it  will  lead  to  the  uncer- 
tainties and  difficulties  that  belonged  to  the  old  system.  But  the  evils  of 
that  system  did  not  belong  to  the  shape  into  which  the  lands  were  divided. 
The  lands  were  often  not  definitely  and  accurately  parceled ; actual  bound- 
ary lines  were  not  fixed  on  the  ground  and  accurate  plats  were  not  made, 
and  the  description  of  the  boundary  lines  was  usually  vague  and  uncertain. 
It  matters  not  what  the  shape  of  tracts  or  parcels  may  be ; if  these  parcels 
are  accurately  defined  by  surveys  on  the  ground  and  plotted  for  record, 
none  of  these  uncertainties  will  arise,  and  if  these  tracts  or  parcels  are 
lettered  or  numbered  on  the  plats,  they  may  be  very  easily  described  in 
conveyances  without  entering  into  a long  and  tedious  description  of  metes 
and  bounds. 

In  most  of  our  western  towns  and  cities  lots  are  accurately  surveyed 
and  plotted  and  described  by  number  of  lot,  number  of  block,  etc.,  etc., 
and  such  a simple  method  should  be  used  in  conveying  the  pasturage  lands. 
While  the  system  of  parceling  and  conveying  by  section,  township,  range, 
etc.,  was  a very  great  improvement  on  the  system  which  previously  existed, 
the  much  more  simple  method  used  in  most  of  our  cities  and  towns  would 
be  a still  further  improvement. 

The  title  to  no  tract  of  land  should  be  conveyed  from  the  Government 


40 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  TnE  UNITED  STATES. 


to  the  individual  until  the  proper  survey  of  the  same  is  mad6  and  the  plat 
prepared  for  record.  With  this  precaution,  which  the  Government  already 
invariably  takes  in  disposing  of  its  lands,  no  fear  of  uncertainty  of  identi- 
fication need  be  entertained. 


WATER  RTGHTS. 

In  each  of  the  suggested  bills  there  is  a clause  providing  that,  with 
certain  restrictions,  the  right  to  the  water  necessary  to  irrigate  any  tract  of 
land  shall  inhere  in  the  land  itself  from  the  date  of  the  organization  of  the 
district.  The  object  of  this  is  to  give  settlers  on  pasturage  or  irrigation 
farms  the  assurance  that  their  lands  shall  not  be  made  worthless  by  taking 
away  the  water  to  other  lands  by  persons  settling  subsequently  in  adjacent 
portions  of  the  country.  Tim  men  of  small  means  who  under  the  theory 
of  the  bill  are  to  receive  its  benefits  will  need  a few  years  in  which  to  con- 
struct the  necessary  waterways  and  bring  their  lands  under  cultivation. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  should  not  be  permitted  to  acquire  rights  to  water 
without  using  the  same.  The  construction  of  the  waterways  necessary  to 
actual  irrigation  by  the  land  owners  may  be  considered  as  a sufficient 
guarantee  that  the  waters  will  subsequently  be  used 

The  general  subject  of  water  rights  is  one  ©f  great  importance.  In 
many  places  in  the  Arid  Region  irrigation  companies  are  organized  who 
obtain  vested  rights  in  the  waters  they  control,  and  consequently  the  rights 
to  such  waters  do  not  inhere  in  any  particular  tracts  of  land. 

When  the  area  to  which  it  is  possible  to  take  the  water  of  any  given 
stream  is  much  greater  than  the  stream  is  competent  to  serve,  if  the  land 
titles  and  water  rights  are  severed,  the  owner  of  any  tract  of  land  is  at 
the  mercy  of  the  owner  of  the  water  right.  In  general,  the  lands  greatly 
exceed  the  capacities  of  the  streams.  Thus  the  lands  have  no  value  without 
water.  If  the  water  rights  fall  into  the  hands  of  irrigating  companies  and 
the  lands  into  the  hands  of  individual  farmers,  the  farmers  then  will  be 
dependent  upon  the  . stock  companies,  and  eventually  the  monopoly  of  water 
rights  will- be  an  intolerable  burden  to  the  people. 

The  magnitude  of  the  interests  involved  must  not  be  overlooked.  All 
the  present  and  future  agriculture  of  more  than  four-tenths  of  the  area  of 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOE  THE  AMD  REGION. 


41 


the  United  States  is  dependent  upon  irrigation,  and  practically  all  values 
for  agricultural  industries  inhere,  not  in  the  lands  but  in  the  water. 
Monopoly  of  land  need  not  be  feared.  The  question  for  legislators  to 
solve  is  to  devise  some  practical  means  by  which  water  rights  may  be 
distributed  among  individual  farmers  and  water  monopolies  prevented. 

The  pioneers  in  the  “new  countries”  in  the  United  States  have  inva- 
riably been  characterized  by  enterprise  and  industry  and  an  intense  desire 
for  the  speedy  development  of  their  new  homes.  These  characteristics  are 
no  whit  less  prominent  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  than  in  the  earlier 
“new  countries”;  but  they  are  even  more  apparent.  The  hardy  pioneers 
engage  in  a multiplicity  of  industrial  enterprises  surprising  to  the  people  of 
long  established  habits  and  institutions.  Under  the  impetus  of  this  spirit 
irrigation  companies  are  organized  and  capital  invested  in  irrigating  canals, 
and  but  little  heed  is  given  to  philosophic  considerations  of  political  econ- 
omy or  to  the  ultimate  condition  of  affairs  in  which  their  present  enterprises 
will  result.  The  pioneer  is  fully  engaged  in  the  present  with  its  hopes  of 
immediate  remuneration  for  labor.  The  present  development  of  the  country 
fulty  occupies  him.  For  this  reason  every  effort  put  forth  to  increase  the 
area  of  the  agricultural  land  by  irrigation  is  welcomed.  Every  man  who 
turns  his  attention  to  this  department  of  industry  is  considered  a public 
benefactor.  But  if  in  the  eagerness  for  present  development  a land  and 
water  system  shall  grow  up  in  which  the  practical  control  of  agriculture 
shall  fall  into  the  hands  of  water  companies,  evils  will  result  therefrom  that 
generations  may  not  be  able  to  correct,  and  the  very  men  who  are  now 
lauded  as  benefactors  to  the  country  will,  in  the  ungovernable  reaction 
which  is  sure  to  come,  be  denounced  as  oppressors  of  the  people. 

The  right  to  use  water  should  inhere  in  the  land  to  he  irrigated , and  water 
rights  should  go  with  land  titles. 

Those  unacquainted  with  the  industrial  institutions  of  the  far  west, 
involving  the  use  of  lands  and  waters,  may  without  careful  thought  suppose 
that  the  long  recognized  principles  of  the  common  law  are  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  severance  of  land  and  water  rights ; but  other  practices  are 
obtaining  which  have,  or  eventually  will  have,  all  the  force  of  common 
law,  because  the  necessities  of  the  country  require  the  change,  and  these 
Oak 


42 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  EECxION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


practices  are  obtaining  the  color  of  right  from  state  and  territorial  legisla- 
tion, and  to  some  extent  by  national  legislation.  In  all  that  country  the 
natural  channels  of. the  streams  cannot  be  made  to  govern  water  rights 
without  great  injury  to  its  agricultural  and  mining  industries.  For  the 
great  purposes  of  irrigation  and  hydraulic  mining  the  water  has  no  value 
in  its  natural  channel.  In  general  the  water  cannot  be  used  for  irrigation 
on  the  lands  immediately  contiguous  to  the  streams — i.  e .,  the  flood  plains 
or  bottom  valleys — for  reasons  more  fully  explained  in  a subsequent 
chapter.  The  waters  must  be  taken  to  a greater  or  less  extent  on  the 
bench  lands  to  be  used  in  irrigation.  All  the  waters  of  all  the  arid  lands 
will  eventually  be  taken  from  their  natural  channels,  and  they  can  be 
utilized  only  to  the  extent  to  which  they  are  thus  removed,  and  water 
rights  must  of  necessity  be  severed  from  the  natural  channels.  There  is 
another  important  factor  to  be  considered.  The  water  when  used  in  irriga- 
tion is  absorbed  by  the  soil  and  reevaporated  to  the  heavens.  It  cannot 
be  taken  from  its  natural  channel,  used,  and  returned.  Again,  the  water 
cannot  in  general  be  properly  utilized  in  irrigation  by  requiring  it  to  be 
taken  from  its  natural  channel  within  the  limits  ordinarily  included  in  a 
single  ownership.  In  order  to  conduct  the  water  on  the  higher  bench 
lands  where  it  is  to  be  used  in  irrigation,  it  is  necessary  to  go  up  the  stream 
until  a level  is  reached  from  which  the  waters  will  flow  to  the  lands  to  be 
redeemed.  The  exceptions  to  this  are  so  small  that  the  statement  scarcely 
needs  qualification.  Thus,  to  use  the  water  it  must  be  diverted  from  its 
natural  course  often  miles  or  scores  of  miles  from  where  it  is  to  be  used. 

The  ancient  principles  of  common  law  applying  to  the  use  of  natural 
streams,  so  wise  and  equitable  in  a humid  region,  would,  if  applied  to  the 
Arid  Region,  practically  prohibit  the  growth  of  its  most  important  industries. 
Thus  it  is  that  a custom  is  springing  up  in  the  Arid  Region  which  may  or 
may  not  have  color  of  authority  in  statutory  or  common  law;  on  this 
I do  not  wish  to  express  an  opinion ; but  certain  it  is  that  water  rights  are 
practically  being  severed  from  the  natural  channels  of  the  streams ; and 
this  must  be  done.  In  the  change,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  water  rights  will 
in  many  cases  be  separated  from  all  land  rights  as  the  system  is  now 
forming.  If  this  fear  is  not  groundless,  to  the  extent  that  such  a separation 


TIIE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOE  THE  AEID  EEGION. 


43 


is  secured,  water  will  become  a property  independent  of  the  land,  and  this 
property  will  be  gradually  absorbed  by  a few.  Monopolies  of  water  will 
be  secured,  and  the  whole  agriculture  of  the  country  will  be  tributary 
thereto — a condition  of  affairs  which  an  American  citizen  having  in  view 
the  interests  of  the  largest  number  of  people  cannot  contemplate  with  favor. 

Practically,  in  that  country  the  right  to  water  is  acquired  by  priority 
of  utilization,  and  this  is  as  it  should  be  from  the  necessities  of  the  country. 
But  two  important  qualifications  are  needed.  The  user  right  should  attach 
to  the  land  where  used,  not  to  the  individual  or  company  constructing 
the  canals  by  which  it  is  used.  The  right  to  the  water  should  inhere  in 
the  land  where  it  is  used ; the  priority  of  usage  should  secure  the  right. 
But  this  needs  some  slight  modification.  A farmer  settling  on  a small  tract, 
to  be  redeemed  by  irrigation,  should  be  given  a reasonable  length  of  time 
in  which  to, secure  his  water  right  by  utilization,  that  he  may  secure  it  by 
his  own  labor,  either  directly  by  constructing  the  waterways  himself,  or 
indirectly  by  cooperating  with  his  neighbors  in  constructing  systems  of 
waterways.  Without  this  provision  there  is  little  inducement  for  poor  men 
to  commence  farming  operations,  and  men  of  ready  cajDital  only  will  engage 
in  such  enterprises. 

The  tentative  bills  submitted  have  been  drawn  on  the  theory  thus 
briefly  enunciated. 

If  there  be  any  doubt  of  the  ultimate  legality  of  the  practices  of  the 
people  in  the  arid  country  relating  to  water  and  land  rights,  all  such  doubts 
should  be  speedily  quieted  through  the  enactment  of  appropriate  laws  by 
the  national  legislature.  Perhaps  an  amplification  by  the  courts  of  what 
has  been  designated  as  the  natural  right  to  the  use  of  water  may  be  made 
to  cover  the  practices  now  obtaining ; but  it  hardly  seems  wise  to  imperil 
interests  so  great  by  intrusting  them  to  the  possibility  of  some  future  court 
made  law. 

THE  LANDS  SHOULD  BE  CLASSIFIED. 

Such  a system  of  disposing  of  the  public  lands  in  the  Arid  Region  will 
necessitate  an  authoritative  classification  of  the  same.  The  largest  amount 
of  land  that  it  is  possible  to  redeem  by  irrigation,  excepting  those  tracts 


44  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


watered  by  lone  springs,  brooks,  and  the  small  branches,  should  be  classed 
as  irrigable  lands,  to  give  the  greatest  possible  development  to  this  indus- 
try. The  limit  of  the  timber  lands  should  be  clearly  defined,  to  prevent 
the  fraudulent  acquirement  of  these  lands  as  pasturage  lands.  The  irriga- 
ble and  timber  lands  are  of  small  extent,  and  their  boundaries  can  easily  be 
fixed.  All  of  the  lands  falling  without  these  boundaries  would  be  relegated 
to  the  greater  class  designated  as  pasturage  lands.  It  is  true  that  all  such 
lands  will  not  be  of  value  for  pasturage  purposes,  but  in  general  it  would 
be  difficult  to  draw  a line  between  absolutely  desert  lands  and  pasturage 
lands,  and  no  practical  purposes  would  be  subserved  thereby.  Fix  the 
boundaries  of  the  timber  lands  that  they  may  be  acquired  by  proper 
methods ; fix  the  boundaries  of  the  irrigable  lands  that  they  may  also  be 
acquired  by  proper  methods,  and  then  permit  the  remaining  lands  to  be 
acquired  by  settlers  as  pasturage  lands,  to  the  extent  that  they  may  be 
made  available,  and  there  will  be  no  fear  of  settlers  encroaching  on  the 
desert  or  valueless  lands. 

Heretofore  we  have  been  considering  only  three  great  classes  of  lands — ’ 
namely,  irrigable,  timber,  and  pasturage  lands,  although  practically  and 
under  the  laws  there  are  two  other  classes  of  lands  to  be  recognized — 
namety,  mineral  lands,  i.  e.,  lands  bearing  lodes  or  placers  of  gold,  silver, 
cinnabar,  etc.,  and  coal  lands.  Under  the  law  these  lands  are  made  special. 
Mineral  lands  are  withheld  from  general  sale,  and  titles  to  the  mines  are 
acquired  by  the  investment  of  labor  and  capital  to  an  amount  specified  in 
the  law.  Coal  lands  are  sold  for  $20  per  acre.  The  mineral  lands  proper, 
though  widely  scattered,  are  of  small  extent.  Where  the  mines  are  lodes, 
the  lands  lie  along  the  mountains,  and  are  to  a greater  or  less  extent  value- 
less for  all  other  purposes.  Where  the  mines  are  placers,  they  may  also  be 
agricultural-  lands,  but  their  extent  is  very  limited.  To  withhold  these 
lands  from  purchase  and  settlement  as  irrigable,  timber,  and  pasturage 
lands  will  in  no  material  way  affect  the  interests  of  the  industries  con- 
nected with  the  last  mentioned  lands.  The  General  Government  cannot 
reasonably  engage  in  the  research  necessary  to  determine  the  mineral 
lands,  but  this  is  practically  done  by  the  miners  themselves.  Thousands 
of  hardy,  skilful  men  are  vigorously  engaged  in  this  work,  and  as  mines 


THE  LAND  SYSTEM  NEEDED  FOR  THE  ARID  REGION. 


45 


are  discovered  mining  districts  are  organized,  and  on  the  proper  representa- 
tion of  these  interested  parties  the  mineral  lands  are  withheld  from  general 
sale  by  the  Land  Department.  Thus,  proper  provision  is  already  made  for 
this  branch  of  the  work  of  classification. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Arid  Region  there  are  extensive  deposits  of  coal. 
These  coal  fields  are  inexhaustible  by  any  population  which  the  country 
can  support  for  any  length  of  time  that  human  prevision  can  contemplate. 
To  withhold  from  general  settlement  the  entire  area  of  the  workable  coal 
fields  would  be  absurd.  Only  a small  fraction  will  be  needed  for  the  next 
century.  Only  those  lands  should  be  classed  as  coal  lands  that  contain 
beds  of  coal  easily  accessible,  and  where  there  is  a possibility  of  their 
being  used  as  such  within  the  next  generation  or  two.  To  designate  or 
set  apart  these  lands  will  require  the  highest  geological  skill ; a thorough 
geological  survey  is  necessary. 

In  providing  for  a general  classification  of  the  lands  of  the  Arid 
Region,  it  will,  then,  be  necessary  to  recognize  the  following  classes,  namely: 
mineral  lands,  coal  lands,  irrigable  lands,  timber  lands,  and  pasturage  lands. 
The  mineral  lands  are  practically,  classified  by  the  miners  themselves,  and 
for  this  no  further  legal  provision  is  necessary.  The  coal  lands  must  be 
determined  by  geological  survey.  The  work  of  determining  the  areas 
which  should  be  relegated  to  the  other  classes — namely,  irrigable,  timber, 
and  pasturage  lands — will  be  comparatively  inexpensive. 


CHATTER  III. 


THE  RAINFALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  PORTION  OE 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  conducted  for  a number  of  years  an 
extensive  system  of  measurements  of  rainfall  in  the  United  States,  and  at 
the  same  time  diligently  collected  pluvial  records  from  every  possible 
source.  The  accumulated  data  thus  collected  were  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Mr.  Charles  A.  Schott  for  reduction  and  discussion,  and  he  prepared  the 
“ Smithsonian  Tables  of  Precipitation  in  Pain  and  Snow  ”,  which  appeared 
in  1868.  Since  that  time  much  additional  material  has  been  acquired  by 
the  continuation  of  the  work  to  the  present  time,  and  also  by  a great 
increase  in  the  number  of  observation  stations,  and  so  valuable  is  this  new 
material  that  it  has  been  determined  to  recompile  the  tables  and  issue  a 
second  edition.  By  the  time  the  present  report  was  called  for,  the  prelim- 
inary computations  for  the  tables  had  developed  an  important  body  of  facts 
bearing  on  the  climate  of  the  Arid  Region,  and  through  the  courtesy  of 
Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  of  Mr. 
Schott,  they  were  placed  at  my  disposal.  Mr.  Schott  also  made  such  a 
change  in  the  order  of  computation  as  to  give  precedence  to  the  states  and 
territories  which  form  the  subject  of  this  investigation,  and  by  this  timely 
favor  made  it  possible  to  base  the  following  discussion  on  the  very  latest 
determinations  of  rainfall. 

The  results  thus  made  available  exhibit  the  mean  precipitation  at  each 
station  of  observation  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  for  each  month,  for  each 
season,  and  for  the  year.  A number  of  other  data  are  also  tabulated,  includ- 
ing the  latitude,  longitude,  and  altitude  of  each  station,  and  the  extent  of 
each  series  of  observations  in  years  and  months.  In  selecting  material  for 
the  present  purpose  the  shorter  records  were  ignored.  The  variations  from 

46 


RAINFALL  OF  WESTERN  TORTION  OF  UNITED  STATES. 


47 


year  to  year  are  so  great  that  an  isolated  record  of  a single  year  is  of  no 
value  as  an  indication  of  the  average  rainfall.  The  mean  of  two  or  three 
years  is  almost  equally  liable  to  mislead,  and  only  a long  series  of  observa- 
tions can  afford  accurate  results.  In  the  following  tables  no  stations  are 
included  (with  one  exception)  which  show  records  of  less  than  five  years’ 
extent. 

Table  I shows  the  precipitation  of  the  Sub-humid  Region;  Table  II, 
of  the  Arid  Region;  Table  III,  of  the  San  Francisco  Region;  and  Table 
IV,  of  the  Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia.  The  limits  of  each  region  have 
been  given  in  a former  chapter,  and  need  not  be  repeated.  In  each  table 
the  first  column  contains  the  names  of  the  stations  of  observation;  the 
second,  their  latitudes;  the  third,  their  longitudes  (west  from  Greenwich); 
and  the  fourth,  their  altitudes  in  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  next 
four  columns  show  for  each  season  of  the  year  the  mean  observed  rainfall 
in  inches,  and  their  sum  appears  in  the  following  column  as  the  mean 
yearly  rainfall.  In  the  last  column  the  extent  of  each  series  of  observa- 
tions is  given  in  years  and  months.  In  Table  I the  stations  are  arranged 
by  latitudes,  in  Tables  II,  III,  and  IV,  alphabetically. 


48 


LANDS  OF  TTIE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Table  II. — Precipitation  of  the  Arid  Bcgion. 


Albuquerque,  X.  Mex 

Camp  Bowie,  Ariz 

Camp  Douglas,  Utah 

Camp  Grant,  Ariz 

Camp  Halleelt,  Nev 

Camp  Harney,  Oreg. 
lamp  Independence,  Cal. 

Camp  McDermitt,  Xev. 

Camp  McDowell,  Ariz 
Camp  Mohave,  Ariz. 

Camp  Verde,  Ariz 
Camp  Warner,  Oreg. 

Camp  Whipple,  Ariz 
Cantonment  Burgwin,  X.  Mex. 

Drum  Barracks,  Cal. 

Denver,  Colo. 

Fort  Bayard,  X.  Mex. 

Fort  Benton,  Mont. 

FortBidwell,  Cal 
Fort  Bliss  (El  Paso),  Tex. 

Fort  Bois6,  Idaho 

Fort  Bridger,  Wyo 

Fort  Buford,  Dak 

Fort  Colville,  Wash 

Fort  Craig,  X.  Mex 

Fort  D.  A.  Bussell,  Wyo. 

Fort  Davis,  Tex. 

Fort  Defiance,  Ariz , 

Fort  Fetterman,  Wyo 

Fort  Fillmore,  X.  Mex  . . . 

Fort  F.  Steele,  Wyo 

Fort  Garland,  Colo 

Fort  Lapwai,  Idaho 

Fort  Laramie,  Wyo 

Fort  Lyon,  Colo 

Fort  Massachusetts,  Colo 
Fort  McPherson,  Xebr. . . 

Fort  McIntosh,  Tex 

Fort  McKae,  X.  Mex 

Fort  Bandall,  Dak 

Fort  Bice,  Dak 

Fort  Sanders,  Wyo 

Fort  Selden,  X.  Mox 

Fort  Shaw,  Mont 

Fort  Stanton,  X.  Mex 

Fort  Stevenson,  Dak 

Fort  Stockton,  Tex 

Fort  Sully,  Dak 

Fort  Union,  X.  Mex 

Fort  Walla  Walla,  Wash. 

Fort  Wingate,  X.  Mex  . . . 

Fort  Yuma,  Cal 


o - I 

10G  38 


110  40  4,  833 


Mean  precipitation,  in  inches. 


RAINFALL  OF  WESTERN  PORTION  OF  UNITED  STATES. 


49 


Table  II. — Precipitation  of  the  Arid  Begion — Continued. 


Station. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Height. 

M 

ean  prec 

ipitation 

, in  inch* 

,s. 

1 

s 

3 

S 

S 

a 

4 

.9 

£ 

1 

o / 

o - 

Feet. 

r.  m. 

Ringgold  Barracks,  Tex 

26  23 

99  00 

521 

3.71 

7.00 

6.31 

2.58 

19.60 

14  2 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

40  46 

111  54 

4,534 

6.25 

6.28 

4.71 

7.57 

24.81 

9 2 

San  Diego,  Cal 

32  42 

117  14 

150 

1. 89 

0.36 

1. 89 

5.17 

9.31 

24  2 

Santa  Fd,  N.  Mex 

35  41 

106  02 

6,846 

2.17 

6.82 

3.45 

2.47  1 

14.  91 

19  10 

Table  III. — Precipitation  of  the  San  Francisco  Begion. 

Mean  precipitation 

, in  inches. 

| 

1 

Station. 

4 

H 

8 

3 

'Bo 

3 

Height 

Spring. 

a 

a 

Autum 

1 

£ 

W 

o / 

o / 

Feet. 

r.  m. 

Alcatraz  Island 

37  49 

122  25 

0.  01 

1.  85 

12.  04 

16.  49 

9 5 

Angel  Island  

37  51 

122  26 

30 

3.52 

0.02 

2.75 

12.  29 

18.58 

5 11 

Benicia  Barracks 

38  03 

122  09 

64 

•4.10 

0. 13 

2.28 

8.  39 

14.90 

18  3 

Fort  Miller 

37  00 

119  40 

402 

7.25 

0.  00 

2.94 

8. 81 

19.00 

6 9 

Fort  Point 

37  48 

122  29 

27 

3.66 

0.  03 

2.28 

11.39 

17. 36 

14  11 

Monterey 

36  37 

121  52 

40 

4.43 

0 26 

2.  24 

8.78 

15. 71 

12  3 

Sacramento 

38  34 

121  26 

81 

5.55 

0.  09 

2.76 

10.84 

19.  24 

18  3 

San  Francisco ; Presidio 

37  47 

122  28 

150 

4.  80 

0. 49 

2.68 

12. 32 

20.29 

20  2 

San  Francisco 

37  48 

122  25 

130 

5.03 

0.22 

3. 05 

13.19 

2L  49 

24  4 

Table  IV. — Precipitation  of  the  Begion  of  the  Lower  Columbia. 


Mean  precipitation,  in  inches. 


Astoria,  Oreg 

Cape  Disappointment,  Wash  . . 

Fort  Dalles,  Oreg 

Camp  Gaston,  Cal 

Camp  Wright,  Cal 

, Crook,  Cal 

; Hoskins,  Oreg 

, Humboldt,  Cal 

Fort  Jones,  Cal 

Fort  Steilacoom,  Wash 

Fort  Stevens,  Oreg 

Fort  Umpqua,  Oreg 

Fort  Vancouver,  Wash 

Fort  Yamhill,  Oreg 

Portland,  Oreg 

Port  Townsend,  Wash 

San  Juan  Island,  Wash 


46  17 
45  33 
41  01 
39  48 
41  07 
45  06 


123  48 

124  03 

120  50 
123  3‘ 
123  17  . 

121  29 

123  26 

124  10 

122  52 

122  34 

123  57  . 

124  10 

122  30 

123  15  . 
122  36 
122  4 


16.72 
26. 90 
19.64 


7 A R 


50  LANDS  OF  TIIE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  RAIN  THROUGH  THE  YEAR. 

In  a general  way  the  limit  of  agriculture  without  irrigation,  or  “dry 
farming”,  is  indicated  by  the  curve  of  20  inches  rainfall,  and  where  the 
rainfall  is  equally  distributed  through  the  year  this  limitation  is  without 
exception.  But  in  certain  districts  the  rainfall  is  concentrated  in  certain 
months  so  as  to  produce  a “rainy  season”,  and  wherever  the  temperature 
of  the  rainy  season  is  adapted  to  the  raising  of  crops  it  is  found  that  “dry 
farming  ” can  be  carried  on  with  less  than  20  inches  of  annual  rain.  There 
are  two  such  districts  upon  the  borders  .'of  the  Arid  Region,  and  within  its 
limits  there  may  be  a third. 

First  District.— Along  the  eastern  border  of  the  Arid  Region  a contrast 
has  been  observed  between  the  results  obtained  at  the  north  and  at  the 
south.  In  Texas  20  inches  of  rain  are  not  sufficient  for  agriculture,  while 
in  Dakota  and  Minnesota  a less  amount  is  sufficient.  The  explanation  is 
clearly  developed  by  a comparison  of  the  tables  of  rainfall  with  reference 
to  the  distribution  of  rain  in  different  seasons. 


RAINFALL  OF  WESTERN  PORTION  OF  UNITED  STATES.  51 


Table  VI. — Precipitation  of  Dakota. 


Table  V includes  every  station  in  Texas  that  has  a record  of  five  years 
or  more,  in  all  twenty  stations.  If  the  means  of  rainfall  for  the  state  be 
compared  with  the  means  for  single  stations,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 
general  correspondence  in  the  ratios  pertaining  to  the  different  seasons,  so 
that  the  former  can  fairly  he  considered  to  represent  for  the  state  the  distri- 
bution through  the  year.  Table  VI  presents  the  data  for  Dakota  in  the 
same  way,  and  the  correspondence  between  the  general  mean  and  the 
station  mean  is  here  exceedingly  close.  At  each  of  the  nine  stations,  the 
greatest  rainfall  is  recorded  in  summer,  the  next  greatest  in  spring,  and  the 
least  in  winter.  Placing  the  two  series  of  results  in  the  form  of  percentages, 
they  show  a decided  contrast : 


Dakota. 
I Texas  . . 


In  Dakota  a rainy  season  is  well  marked,  and  73  per  cent,  of  the  rain 
falls  in  spring  and  summer,  or  at  the  time  when  it  is  most  needed  by  the 
farmer.  In  Texas  only  52  per  cent,  of  the  rain  falls  in  the  season  of 
agriculture.  The  availability  of  rain  in  the  two  regions  is  therefore  in  the 
ratio  of  73  to  52,  and  for  agricultural  purposes  20  inches  of  rainfall  in 
Texas  is  equivalent  to  about  15  inches  in  Dakota. 

For  the  further  exhibition  of  the  subject,  Table  VII  has  been  prepared, 


52  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

comprising  stations  in  the  Region  of  the  Plains  all  the  way  from  our 
northern  to  our  southern  boundary.  By  way  of  restricting  attention  to  the 
practical  problem  of  the  limit  of  “ dry  farming”,  only  those  stations  are 
admitted  which  exhibit  a mean  annual  rainfall  of  more  than  15  and  less 
than  25  inches.  The  order  of  arrangement  is  by  latitudes,  and  in  the 
columns  at  the  right  the  seasonal  rainfalls  are  expressed  in  percentages  of 
the  yearly.  The  column  at  the  extreme  right  gives  the  sum  of  the  spring 
and  summer  quotas,  and  is  taken  to  express  the  availability  of  the  rain- 
fall. 


The  graduation  of  the  ratios  from  north  to  south  is  apparent  to  inspec- 
tion, but  is  somewhat  irregular.  The  irregularity,  however,  is  not  greater 
han  should  be  anticipated  from  the  shortness  of  the  terms  of  observation 
at  the  several  stations,  and  it  disappears  when  the  stations  are  combined  in 
natural  groups.  Dividing  the  whole  series  into  three  groups,  as  indicated 


RAINFALL  OF  WESTERN  TORTION  OF  UNITED  STATES.  53 


by  the  cross  lines  in  Table  VII,  and  computing  weighted  means  of  the 
seasonal  ratios,  we  have — 


Table  VII  (a).* 


* In  computing  the  several  means  of  Table  VII  (a)  from  the  seasonal  means  of  Table  VII,  the 
latter  were  weighted  according  to  the  lengths  of  the  records  by  which  they  had  been  obtained. 

A moment’s  inspection  will  show  that  the  middle  group  is  intermediate 
between  the  northern  and  southern  in  all  its  characters.  The  spring  quota 
of  rainfall  progressively  diminishes  from  north  to  south,  and  so  does  the 
summer,  while  the  fall  and  winter  quotas  increase.  What  is  lost  in  summer 
is  gained  in  winter,  and  thereby  the  inequality  of  rainfall  from  season  to 
season  is  diminished,  so  that  a rainy  season  is  not  so  well  defined  in  Texas 
as  in  Dakota.  What  is  lost  in  spring  is  gained  in  autumn,  and  thereby  the 
place  of  the  rainy  season  in  the  year  is  shifted  In  Dakota  the  maximum 
of  rain  is  earlier  than  in  Texas,  and  corresponds  more  nearly  with  the 
maximum  of  temperature. 


Table  VIII. — Seasonal  precipitation  in  the  San  Francisco  Region. 


54  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Second  District. — In  the  San  Francisco  Region  a rainy  season  is  still 
more  definitely  marked,  but  occurs  at  a different  time  of  year.  It  will  be 
seen  by  Tables  III  and  VIII  that  no  rain  falls  in  summer,  while  the  winter 
months  receive  60  per  cent,  of  the  annual  precipitation,  and  the  spring  25 
per  cent.  The  general  yearly  rainfall  of  the  district  is  only  about  16 
inches,  but  by  this  remarkable  concentration  a period  of  five  months  is 
made  to  receive  13  inches.  The  winter  temperature  of  the  district  is  no  less 
remarkable,  and  supplies  the  remaining  condition  essential  to  agriculture. 
Frosts  are  rare,  and  in  the  valleys  all  the  precipitation  has  the  form  of  rain. 
The  nine  stations  which  afford  the  rainfall  records  given  above  show  a 
mean  spring  temperature  of  57°  (see  Table  IX).  Thirteen  inches  of  rain 
coming  in  a frostless  winter  and  spring  have  been  found  sufficient  for 
remunerative  agriculture. 


Table  IX.— Mean  temperatures,  by  seasons,  for  the  San  Francisco  Region. 


The  same  winter  maximum  of  rainfall  is  characteristic  of  the  whole 
Pacific  coast.  The  Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia,  with  an  average  rain- 
fall of  46  inched,  receives  47  per  cent,  of  it  in  winter  and  24  per  cent,  in 
spring.  Southward  on  the  coast,  Drum  Barracks  (near  Los  Angeles)  and 
San  Diego  receive  more  than  half  their  rain  in  winter,  but  as  the  whole 
amount  is  only  9 inches  agriculture  is  not  benefited.  The  eastern  bases 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range  exhibit  the  winter  maximum  of 
rainfall,  and  this  feature  can  be  traced  eastward  in  Idaho  and  Nevada,  but 


RAINFALL  OF  WESTERN  PORTION  OF  UNITED  STATES. 


in  these  districts  it  is  accompanied  by  no  amelioration  of  winter  tempera- 
ture. (See  Table  X.) 


Table  X. — Seasonal  precipitation  and  temperatures  on  the  Pacific  coast,  etc. 


Third  District. — In  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  there  is  a general  maxi- 
mum of  rainfall  in  summer,  and  a restricted  maximum  in  winter.  The 
principal  minimum  is  in  spring.  In  Table  XI  the  stations  are  arranged 
according  to  longitudes,  a disposition  well  suited  to  exhibit  their  relations. 
In  eastern  New  Mexico  the  distribution  of  rainfall  has  the  same  character 
as  in  adjacent  Texas,  but  with  a more  decided  maximum.  Half  of  the 
total  rainfall  is  in  summer  and  half  of  the  remainder  in  autumn.  Westward 
the  maximum  diminishes  slightly,  but  it  appears  in  every  station  of  the  two 
territories.  In  western  Arizona  the  winter  maximum  of  the  Pacific  coast 
asserts  itself,  and  it  can  be  traced  eastward  as  far  as  Fort  Wingate,  New 
Mexico  Except  at  Camp  Mohave,  on  the  western  border  of  Arizona,  it  is 
inferior  in  amount  to  the  summer  maximum. 


56  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


In  all  this  region  the  daily  range  of  temperature  is  great,  and  frosts 
occur  so  early  in  autumn  that  no  use  can  be  made  of  the  autumnal  rainfall. 
The  yearly  precipitation  is  very  small,  and  the  summer  quota  rarely 
exceeds  seven  or  eight  inches.  Nevertheless  the  Pueblo  Indians  have 
succeeded,  in  a few  localities,  and  by  a unique  method,  in  raising  maize 
without  irrigation.  The  yield  is  too  meagre  to  tempt  the  white  man  to 
follow  their  example,  and  for  his  use  the  region  is  agricultural  only  where  it 
can  be  watered  artificially. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


WATER  SUPPLY. 

By  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

The  following  discussion  is  based  upon  a special  study  of  the  drainage- 
basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 

INCREASE  OF  STREAMS. 

The  residents  of  Utah  who  practice  irrigation  have  observed  that  many 
of  the  streams  have  increased  in  volume  since  the  settlement  of  the  country. 
Of  the  actuality  of  this  increase  there  can  be  no  question.  A popular 
impression  in  regard  to  the  fluctuations  of  an  unmeasured  element  of  climate 
may  be  very  erroneneous,  as,  for  example,  the  impression  that  the  rainfall  of 
the  timbered  states  has  been  diminished  by  the  clearing  of  the  land,  but  in 
the  case  of  these  streams  relative  measurements  have  practically  been  made. 
Some  of  them  were  so  fully  in  use  twenty  years  ago  that  all  of  their  water 
was  diverted  from  its  channels  at  the  “ critical  period”,  and  yet  the  depend- 
ent fields  suffered  from  drought  in  the  drier  years.  Afterward,  it  was 
found  that  in  all  years  there  was  enough  water  and  to  spare,  and  opera- 
tions were  extended.  Additional  canals  were  dug  and  new  lands  were 
added  to  the  fields  ; and  this  was  repeated  from  time  to  time,  until  in  many 
places  the  service  of  a stream  was  doubled,  and  in  a few  it  was  increased 
tenfold,  or  even  fiftyfold.  It  is  a matter  of  great  importance  to  the  agricul- 
tural interests,  not  only  of  Utah  but  of  the  whole  district  dependent  on  irri- 
gation, that  the  cause  or  causes  of  this  change  shall  be  understood.  Until 
they  are  known  we  cannot  tell  whether  the  present  gain  is  an  omen  of 
future  gain  or  of  future  loss,  nor  whether  the  future  changes  are  within  or 
beyond  our  control.  I shall  therefore  take  the  liberty  to  examine  somewhat 
at  length  the  considerations  which  are  supposed  by  myself  or  others  to  bear 
upon  the  problem. 

Fortunately  we  are  not  compelled  to  depend  on  the  incidental  observa- 

57 


8 A 11 


58  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


lions  of  the  farming  community  for  the  amount  of  the  increase  of  the 
streams,  but  merely  for  the  fact  of  their  increase.  The  amount  is  recorded 
in  an  independent  and  most  thorough  manner,  by  the  accumulation  of  the* 
water  in  Great  Salt  Lake. 

EISE  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE. 

A lake  with  an  outlet  has  its  level  determined  by  the  height  of  the 
outlet  Great  Salt  Lake,  having  no  outlet,  has  its  level  determined  by  the 
relation  of  evaporation  to  inflow.  On  one  hand  the  drainage  of  a great 
basin  pours  into  it  a continuous  though  variable  tribute ; on  the  other,  there 
is  a continuous  absorption  of  its  water  by  the  atmosphere  above  it.  The 
inflow  is  greatest  in  the  spring  time,  while  the  snows  are  melting  in  the 
mountains,  and  least  in  the  autumn  after  the  melting  has  ceased,  but  before 
the  cooling  of  the  air  has  greatly  checked  evaporation  on  the  uplands.  The 
lake  evaporation  is  greatest  in  summer,  while  the  air  is  warm,  and  least  in 
winter.  Through  the  winter  and  spring  the  inflow  exceeds  the  evaporation, 
and  the  lake  rises.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  in  autumn  the 
loss  is  greater  than  the  gain,  and  the  lake  falls.  The  maximum  occurs  in 
June  or  July,  and  the  minimum  probably  in  November.  The  difference 
between  the  two,  or  the  height  of  the  annual  tide,  is  about  20  inches. 

But  it  rarely  happens  that  the  annual  evaporation  is  precisely  equal  to 
the  annual  inflow,  and  each  year  the  lake  gains  or  loses  an  amount  which 
depends  upon  the  climate  of  the  year.  If  the  air  which  crosses  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  lake  in  any  year  is  unusually  moist,  there  is  a twofold  tendency 
to  raise  the  mean  level.  On  one  hand  there  is  a greater  precipitation, 
whereby  the  inflow  is  increased,  and  on  the  other  hand  there  is  a less 
evaporation.  Sb,.too,  if  the  air  is  unusually  dry,  the  inflow  is  correspond- 
ingly small,  the  loss  by  evaporation  is  correspondingly  great,  and  the 
contents  of  the  lake  diminish.  This  annual  gain  or  loss  is  an  expression, 
and  a very  delicate  expression,  of  the  mean  annual  humidity  of  a large 
district  of  country,  and  as  such  is  more  trustworthy  than  any  result  which 
might  be  derived  from  local  observations  with  psychrometer  and  rain  gauge. 
A succession  of  relatively  dry  years  causes  a progressive  fall  of  the  lake, 
and  a succession  of  moist  years  a progressive  rise.  As  the  water  falls  it 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


59 


retires  from  its  shore,  and  the  slopes  being  exceedingly  gentle  the  area  of 
the  lake  is  rapidly  contracted.  The  surface  for  evaporation  diminishes  and 
its  ratio  to  the  inflow  becomes  less.  As  the  water  rises  the  surface  of  the  lake 
rapidly  increases,  and  the  ratio  of  evaporation  to  inflow  becomes  greater. 
In  this  way  a limit  is  set  to  the  oscillation  of  the  lake  as  dependent  on  the 
ordinary  fluctuations  of  climate,  and  the  cumulation  of  results  is  prevented. 
Whenever  the  variation  of  the  water  level  from  its  mean  position  becomes 
great,  the  resistance  to  its  further  advance  in  that  direction  becomes  pro- 
portionally great.  For  the  convenience  of  a name,  I shall  speak  of  this 
oscillation  of  the  lake  as  the  limited  oscillation.  It  depends  on  an  oscillation 
of  climate  which  is  universally  experienced,  but  which  has  not  been  found 
to  exhibit  either  periodicity,  or  synchrony  over  large  areas,  or  other  features 
of  regularity. 

Beside  the  annual  tide  and  the  limited  oscillation,  the  lake  has  been 
found  to  exhibit  a third  change,  and  this  third  or  abnormal  change  seems 
to  be  connected  with  the  increase  of  the  tributary  streams.  In  order  to 
exhibit  it,  it  will  be  necessary  to  discuss  somewhat  fully  the  history  of  the' 
rise  and  fall  of  the  lake,  and  I shall  take  occasion  at  the  same  time  to  call 
attention  to  the  preparations  that  have  recently  been  made  for  future 
observations. 

Previous  to  the  year  1875  no  definite  record  was  made.  In  1874 
Prof.  Joseph  Henry,  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  began  a 
correspondence  with  Dr.  John  R.  Park,  of  Salt  Lake  City,  in  regard  to  the 
fluctuations  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  lake,  and  as  a chief  result  a 
systematic  record  was  begun.  With  the  cooperation  of  Mr.  J.  L.  Barfoot 
and  other  citizens  of  Utah,  Dr.  Park  erected  a graduated  pillar  at  Black 
Rock,  a point  on  the  southern  shore  which  was  then  a popular  summer 
resort.  It  consisted  of  a granite  block  cut  in  the  form  of  an  obelisk  and 
engraved  on  one  side  with  a scale  of  feet  and  inches.  It  was  set  in  gravel 
beneath  shallow  water,  with  the  zero  of  its  scale  near  the  surface.  The 
water  level  was  read  on  the  pillar  by  Mr.  John  T.  Mitchell  at  frequent 
intervals  from  September  14,  1875,  to  October  9,  1876,  when  the  locality 
ceased  to  be  used  as  a watering  place,  and  the  systematic  record  was 
discontinued.  Two  observations  were  made  by  the  writer  in  1877,  and  it 


GO  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

was  found  in  making  the  second  that  the  shifting  gravel  of  the  beach  had 
buried  the  column  so  deeply  as  to  conceal  half  the  graduation. 

Dr.  Park  has  kindly  furnished  me  a copy  of  Mr.  Mitchell’s  record. 
The  observer  was  instructed  to  choose  such  times  of  observation  that  the 
influence  of  wind  storms  upon  the  level  of  the  lake  would  be  eliminated, 
and  the  work  appears  to  have  been  faithfully  performed. 


Record  of  the  height  of  Great  Salt  Lake  above  the  zero  of  the  granite  pillar  at  Black  Rock. 


Date. 

Bea 

ling. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Beading. 

Wind. 

Year. 

Month. 

Q 

£ 

4 

| Direction.  1 

1 

£ 

Year. 

Month. 

•Jva 

& 

l 

| Direction.  1 

£ 

September . . 

14 

0 

6 

N. 

Gentle. 

1876  

April 

17 

j~ 

2 

Calm. 

22 

0 

5i 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

25 

1 

3 

N.E. 

Quiet.  - 

25 

0 

5 

n.e. 

Quiet. 

May 

2 

1 

4 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

October 

6 

0 

41 

N. 

Quiet. 

22 

1 

9 

N. 

Quiet. 

12 

0 

4 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

June 

2 

1 

11 

W. 

Quiet. 

18 

0 

31 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

8 

2 

0 

Calm. 

26 

0 

3. 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

13 

2 

2 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

November.. 

9 

0 

2 

W. 

Quiet. 

23 

2 

4 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

16 

0 

U 

N. 

Quiet. 

30 

2 

6 

S. 

Quiet. 

23 

0 

4 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

July..'. 

18 

2 

3 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

29 

0 

51 

E. 

Quiet. 

25 

2 

4 

N.E. 

Quiet- 

December  .. 

7 

0 

5 

E. 

Quiet. 

August 

1 

2 

3 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

14 

0 

51 

E. 

Quiet. 

10 

2 

2 

N.E. 

Quiet- 

21 

0 

6 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

22 

1 

9 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

1876 

January 

5 

0 

8 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

29 

1 

8 

S.E. 

Strong. 

11 

0 

81 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

30 

1 

8 

N. 

Quiet. 

29 

0 

9 

E. 

Quiet. 

September . . 

14 

1 

7 

Calm. 

February . . . 

1 

0 

9 

S.  E. 

Quiet. 

19 

1 

61 

N. 

Quiet. 

15 

0 

91 

Calm. 

26 

1 

6 

'Calm. 

22 

0 

91 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

October 

9 

1 

51 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

March 

15 

0 

11 

0 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

1877 

July 

12 

2 

1 

N.E. 

Quiet. 

October 

19 

10 

Calm. 

28 

1 

1 

N.  E. 

Quiet. 

Comparing  the  October  observations  for  three  years,  it  appears  that  the 
lake  rose  13  inches  from  1875  to  1876,  and  fell  in  the  next  year  6£  inches. 

The  Black  Rock  pillar  has  not  the  permanence  that  is  desirable. 
Although  it  has  thus  far  been  only  the  more  firmly  established  by  the 
action  of  the  waves,  it  is  still  true  that  the  lake  is  encroaching  on  the  land 
in  this  part  of  the  coast,  and  a storm  may  at  any  time  undermine  and 
overthrow  the  pillar.  To  provide  for  such  a contingency  it  was  deter- 
mined to  establish  a bench  mark  out  of  reach  of  the  waves,  and  connect 
' it  with  the  pillar  by  leveling,  so  that  if  the  existing  standard  should  be 


UTAH  TERRITORY. 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


61 


destroyed  its  record  would  still  have  a definite  meaning,  and  the  relative 
height  of  a new  standard  could  be  ascertained  with  precision.  In  this 
undertaking  I was  joined  by  Mr.  Jesse  W.  Fox,  a gentleman  who  has 
long  held  the  office  of  territorial  surveyor  of  Utah.  A suitable  stone 
was  furnished  by  the  Hon.  Brigham  Young,  and  was  carried  to  Black 
Rock  without  charge  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Heber  P.  Kimball, 
superintendent  of  the  Utah  Western  Railroad.  The  block  is  of  granite, 
and  is  three  feet  in  length.  It  was  sunk  in  the  earth,  all  but  a few  inches, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  a small  limestone  knoll  just  south  of  the  railroad 
track  at  Black  Rock.  Its  top  is  dressed  square,  about  10X10  inches,  and  is 
marked  with  a +.  It  will  be  convenient  to  speak  of  the  top  of  this  monu- 
ment as  the  Black  Bock  bench.  On  the  11th  of  July,  1877,  the  surface  of 
the  lake  was  34.5  feet  below  the  bench,  and  it  then  marked  2.0  feet  on  the 
pillar  erected  by  Dr.  Park.  The  zero  of  the  observation  pillar  is  therefore 
36.5  feet  below  the  bench. 

The  accompanying  topographic  sketch  will  serve  at  any  time  to  identify 
the  position  of  the  bench. 

After  consultation  with  Dr.  Park,  I concluded  that  it  would  be  better 
not  to  depend  on  the  Black  Rock  station  for  observations  in  the  future — at 
least  in  the  immediate  future — and  other  points  were  discussed.  Eventually 
it  was  determined  to  establish  a new  station  near  Farmington,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake.  The  point  selected  is  in  an  inlet  so  sheltered  that  a 
heavy  swell  in  the  lake  will  not  interfere  with  accurate  observation.  At 
the  present  stage  of  water  the  spot  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  it 
can  be  used  with  the  water  2 feet  lower  or  5 feet  higher.  I was  not  able 
to  attend  personally  to  the  erection  of  the  pillar,  but  left  the  matter  in  the 
hands  of  Mr.  Jacob  Miller,  of  Farmington,  who  writes  me  that  it  was  placed 
in  position  and  the  record  begun  on  the  24th  of  November,  1877.  The 
pillar  is  of  wood,  and  is  graduated  to  inches  for  9 feet  of  its  length. 

On  the  day  of  its  establishment  the  reading  of  the  water  surface  was  2 
feet  1 inch.  On  the  21st  of  January,  1878,  the  reading  was  2 feet  1£  inches. 

The  Farmington  and  Black  Rock  pillars  are  23  miles  apart.  The 
relative  height  of  their  zeros  will  be  ascertained  as  soon  as  practicable  by 
making  coincident  readings,  during  still  weather,  of  the  water  surface  at 


G2  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  two  stations.  It  is  already  known  that  the  Farmington  zero  is  approxi- 
mately 1G  inches  lower  than  the  Black  Rock. 

A stone  “bench”  or  monument  for  permanent  reference  has  also  been 
placed  on  rising  ground  near  the  observation  pillar,  and  the  two  will  be 
connected  by  spirit  level.  The  Farmington  bench  is  of  gneiss,  and  is 
marked  with  a + in  the  same  manner  as  the  Black  Rock.  The  stone  was 
contributed  by  Mr.  Abbott,  of  Farmington,  and  was  gratuitously  shaped 
and  placed  by  Mr.  Miller. 

Mr.  Miller  has  also  voluntarily  assumed  charge  of  the  record,  and  will 
make  or  superintend  the  observations.  It  will  not  be  practicable  to  visit 
the  pillar  daily,  nor  . even  at  regular  intervals,  but  it  is  expected  that  the 
record  will  be  as  full  as  the  one  tabulated  above.  The  following  items  are 
to  be  noted : 

1.  Time  of  observation,  including  year,  month,  day,  and  hour. 

2.  Reading  of  water  surface  in  feet  and  inches. 

3.  Direction  and  force  of  wind. 

4.  Account  of  wind  for  the  preceding  24  hours. 

5.  Name  of  observer. 

These  observations  will  not  only  determine  the  annual  gain  or  loss  of  the 
lake,  but  will  in  a few  years  give  data  to  construct  the  curve  of  the  annual  tide. 

The  history  of  past  changes  not  having  been  the  subject  of  record,  it 
became  necessary  to  compile  it  from  such  collateral  data  as  were  attainable. 
The  enquiries  inaugurated  by  Professor  Henry  have  been  prosecuted,  and 
have  resulted  in  a tolerably  definite  determination  of  the  principal  changes 
since  1 847,  together  with  the  indication  of  a superior  limit  to  earlier  oscillations. 

Ever  since  the  settlement  of  Salt  Lake  City,  in  1847,  the  islands  of 
the  lake  have  been  used  as  herd  grounds.  Fremont  and  Carrington  islands 
have  been  reached  by  boat,  and  Antelope  and  Stansbury  islands  partly  by 
boat,  partly  by  fording,  and  partly  by  land  communication.  A large  share 
of  the  navigation  has  been  performed  by  citizens  of  Farmington,  and  the 
shore  is  in  that  neighborhood  so  flat  that  the  changes  of  water  level  have 
necessitated  frequent  changes  of  landing  place.  The  pursuits  of  the 
boatmen  have  been  so  greatly  affected  that  all  of  the  more  important 
fluctuations  were  impressed  upon  their  memories,  and  most  of  the  changes 


WATETC  SUPPLY. 


G3 


were  so  associated  with  features  of  the  topography  that  some  estimate  of 
their  quantitative  values  could  be  made.  The  data  which  became  thus 
available  were  collated  for  Professor  Henry  by  Mr.  Miller,  a gentleman 
who  himself  took  part  in  the  navigation,  and  of  whom  I have  already  had 
occasion  to  speak.  His  results  agree  very  closely  with  those  derived  from 
an  independent  investigation  of  my  own,  to  which  I will  now  proceed. 

Antelope  Island  is  connected  with  the  delta  of  the  J ordan  River  by  a 
broad,  flat  sand  bar  that  lias  been  usually  submerged  but  occasionally 
exposed.  It  slopes  very  gently  toward  the  island,  and  just  where  it  joins 
it  is  interrupted  by  a narrow  channel  a few  inches  in  depth.  For  a num- 
ber of  years  this  bar  afforded  the  means  of  access  to  the  island,  and  many 
persons  traversed  it.  By  combining  the  evidence  of  such  persons  it  has 
been  practicable  to  learn  the  condition  of  the  ford  up  to  the  time  of  its  final 
abandonment.  From  1847  to  1850  the  bar  was  dry  during  the  low  stage 
of  each  winter,  and  in  summer  covered  by  not  more  than  20  inches 
of  water.  Then  began  a rise  which  continued  until  1855  or  1856.  At 
that  time  a horseman  could  with  difficulty  ford  in  the  winter,  but  all  com- 
munication was  by  boat  in  summer.  Then  the  water  fell  for  a series  of 
years  until  in  1860  and  1861  the  bar  was  again  dry  in  winter.  The 
spring  of  1862  was  marked  by  an  unusual  fall  of  rain  and  snow,  whereby 
the  streams  were  greatly  flooded  and  the  lake  surface  was  raised  several 
feet.  In  subsequent  years  the  rise  continued,  until  in  1865  the  ford  became 
impassable.  According  to  Mr.  Miller  the  present  height  was  attained  in 
about  1868,  and  there  have  since  occurred  only  minor  fluctuations. 

For  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  traditional  history  as  derived  from 
the  ford  with  the  systematic  record  that  has  now  been  inaugurated,  I visited 
the  bar  in  company  with  Mr.  Miller  on  the  19tli  of  October,  1877,  and  made 
careful  soundings.  The  features  of  the  ford  had  been  minutely  described, 
and  there  was  no  uncertainty  as  to  the  identification  of  the  locality.  We 
found  9 feet  of  water  on  the  sand  flat,  and  9 feet  6 inches  in  the  little  channel 
at  its  edge.  The  examination  was  completed  at  11a.  m. ; at  5 p.  m.  the 
water  stood  at  0 feet  10  inches  on  the  Black  Rock  pillar;  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day  at  8 a.  m.  we  marked  its  level  at  the  place  where  the  Farmington 
pillar  now  stands,  our  mark  being  2 feet  2 inches  above  the  zero  of  the  pillar. 


G4  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  TnE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Antelope  Island  bar  thus  affords  a tolerably  complete  record  from 
1847  to  1865,  but  fails  to  give  any  later  details.  It  happens,  however,  that 
the  hiatus  is  filled  at  another  locality.  Stansbury  Island  is  joined  to  the 
mainland  by  a similar  bar,  which  was  entirely  above  water  at  the  time  of 
Captain  Stansbury’s  survey,  and  so  continued  for  many  years.  In  1866, 
the  year  following  that  in  which  the  Antelope  bar  became  unfordable,  the 
water  for  the  first  time  covered  the  Stansbury  bar,  and  its  subsequent 
advance  and  recession  have  so  affected  the  pursuits  of  the  citizens  of  Grants- 
ville,  who  used  the  island  for  a winter  herd  ground,  that  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  obtain  a full  record  by  compiling  their  forced  observations. 
Since  undertaking  the  inquiry  I have  had  no  opportunity  to  visit  that  town, 
but  the  following  facts  have  been  elicited  by  correspondence.  Since  the 
first  flooding  of  the  bar  the  depth  of  water  has  never  been  leSs  than  1 foot, 
and  it  has  never  been  so  great  as  to  prevent  fording  in  winter.  But  in  the 
summers  of  1872,  1873,  and  1874,  during  the  flood  stage  of  the  annual  tide, 
there  was  no  access  except  by  boat,  and  in  those  years  the  lake  level 
attained  its  greatest  height.  In  the  spring  of  1869  the  depth  was  4^  feet, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1877,  2^  feet. 

The  last  item  shows  that  the  Stansbury  bar  is  7 feet  higher  than  the 
Antelope,  and  serves  to  connect  the  two  series  of  observations. 

Further  inquiries  wfill  probably  render  the  record  more  complete  and 


111 


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Diagram  showing  the  rise  and  fall  of  Great  Salt  Lake  from  1847  to  1877. 


N.  S.  = Level  of  new  storm  line. 

O.  S.  Level  of  old  storm  line. 

S.  B.  = Level  of  Stansbury  Island  bar. 
A.  B.  — Level  of  Antelope  Island  bar. 


WAT  Eli  SUPPLY. 


G5 


exact,  but,  as  it  now  stands,  all  the  general  features  of  the  fluctuations  are 
clearly  indicated.  In  the  accompanying  diagram  the  horizontal  spaces  rep- 
resent years,  and  the  vertical,  feet.  The  irregular  curve  shows  the  height 
of  the  lake  in  different  years.  Where  it  is  drawn  as  a full  line  the  data  are 
definite ; the  dotted  portions  are  interpolated. 

Upon  the  same  diagram  are  indicated  the  levels  of  two  storm  .lines. 
The  upper  is  the  limit  of  wave  action  at  the  present  time,  and  is  3 feet 
above  the  winter  stage  (October,  1877).  It  is  everywhere  marked  by  drift 
wood,  and  in  many  places  by  a ridge  of  sand.  Above  it  there  is  a growth, 
on  all  steep  shores,  of  sage  and  other  bushes,  but  those  in  immediate  prox- 
imity are  dead,  having  evidently  been  killed  by  the  salt  spray.  Below  the 
line  are  still  standing  the  stumps  of  similar  bushes,  and  the  same  can  be 
found  2 or  3 feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  lower  storm  line  was  observed  by  Captain  Stansbury  in  1850, 
and  has  been  described  to  me  by  a number  of  citizens  of  Utah  to  whom  it 
was  familiar  at  that  time  and  subsequently.  Like  the  line  now  visible,  it 
was  marked  by  drift  wood,  and  a growth  of  bushes,  including  the  sage, 
extended  down  to  it ; but  below  it  there  were  seen  no  stumps.  Its  position 
is  now  several  feet  under  water,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  advancing 
waves  destroyed  most  of  its  features,  but  the  vestiges  of  the  bushy  growth 
above  it  remain. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  two  storm  lines  have  an  important  bearing  on 
the  history  of  the  lake.  The  fact  that  the  belt  of  land  between  them  sup- 
ported sage  bushes  shows  that  previous  to  its  present  submergence  the  lake 
had  not  covered  it  for  many  years.  Lands  washed  by  the  brine  of  the 
lake  become  saturated  with  salt  to  such  extent  that  even  salt-loving 
plants  cannot  live  upon  them,  and  it  is  n familiar  fact  that  the  sage 
(. Artemisia  sempervirens ) never  grows  in  Utah  upon  soil  so  saline  as  to  be 
unfavorable  for  grain.  The  rains  of  many  years,  and  perhaps  even  of 
centuries,  would  be  needed  to  dense  land  abandoned  by  the  lake  so  that 
it  could  sustain  the  salt-hating  bushes,  and  we  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion 
that  the  ancient  storm  line  had  been  for  a long  period  the  superior  limit  of 
the  fluctuations  of  the  lake  surface. 

To  avoid  misapprehension,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  storm  lines 
9 A R 


GC>  LANDS  OF  THE  AEID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


have  been  described  as  they  appear  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Antelope 
Island,  a locality  where  the  slope  of  the  ground  amounts  to  three  or  four 
degrees.  The  circumstances  are  different  at  the  margin  of  the  mainland, 
and  especially  where  the  slopes  are  very  gentle.  The  lake  is  so  shallow 
that  its  equilibrium  is  greatly  disturbed  by  strong  winds.  Its  waves  are 
small,  but  in  storms  the  water  is  pushed  high  up  on  the  land  toward  which 
the  wind  blows,  the  extreme  effects  being  produced  where  the  inclination  is 
most  gentle.  The  islands,  however,  are  little  flooded;  the  water  does  not 
accumulate  against  them,  but  is  driven  past;  and  the  easterly  gales  that 
produced  the  present  storm  line  on  the  east  shore  of  Antelope  Island  may 
have  driven  so  much  water  to  the  westward  as  even  to  have  depressed  the 
level  in  that  locality.  Moreover,  where  the  land  surface  is  nearly  level,  the 
cleansing  by  rain  of  portions  once  submerged  is  indefinitely  retarded.  On 
all  the  flatter  shores  the  lake  is  bordered  by  tracts  too  saline  for  reclamation 
by  the  farmer,  and  either  bare  of  vegetation  or  scantily  covered  by  salt- 
loving  shrubs.  These  tracts  are  above  the  modern  storm  line,  and  they 
acquired  their  salt  during  some  flood  too  remote  to  be  considered  in  this 
connection.  The  largest  of  them  is  called  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Desert,  and 
has  a greater  area  than  the  lake  itself. 

Thus  it  appears  that  in  recent  times  the  lake  has  overstepped  a bound 
to  which  it  had  long  been  subject.  Previous  to  the  year  1865,  and  for  a 
period  of  indefinite  duration,  it  rose  and  fell  with  the  limited  oscillation 
and  with  the  annual  tide,  but  was  never  carried  above  a certain  limiting- 
line.  In  that  year,  or  the  one  following,  it  passed  the  line,  and  it  has  not 
yet  returned.  The  annual  tide  and  the  limited  oscillation  are  continued 
as  before,  but  the  lowest  stage  of  the  new  regime  is  higher  than  the  highest 
stage  of  the  old.  The  mean  stage  of  the  new  regime  is  7 or  8 feet  higher 
than  the  mean  stage  of  the  old.  The  mean  area  of  the  water  surface  is  a 
sixth  part  greater  under  the  new  regime  than  under  the  old. 

The  last  statement  is  based  on  the  United  States  surveys  of  Captain 
Stansbury  and  Mi-.  King.  The  former  gathered  the  material  for  his  map  in 
1850,  when  the  water  was  at  its  lowest  stage,  and  the  latter  in  the  spring 
of  I860,  when  the  water  was  near  its  highest  stage.  The  one  map  shows 
an  area  of  1,750  and  the  other  of  2,166  square  miles.  From  these  I 


WATER  SUITLY. 


G7 


estimate  the  olcl  mean  area  at  1,820  miles,  the  new  at  2,125  miles,  and  the 
increase  at  305  miles,  or  17  per  cent. 

The  “abnormal  change”  of  the  lake  may  then  be  described  as  an 
infilling  or  rise  of  the  water  whereby  its  ordinary  level  has  been  raised  7 
or  8 feet  and  its  ordinary  area  has  been  increased  a sixth  part ; and  this 
appears  to  be  distinct  from  the  limited  oscillation  and  annual  tide,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  comparatively  normal.  To  account  for  it  a number  of 
theories  have  been  proposed,  and  three  of  them  seem  worthy  of  considera- 
tion. They  appeal  respectively  to  volcanic,  climatic,  and  human  agencies. 

VOLCANIC  THEORY. 

It  has  been  surmised  that  upheavals  of  the  land,  such  as  sometimes 
accompany  earthquakes,  might  have  changed  the  form  of  the  lake  bed  and 
displaced  from  some  region  the  water  that  has  overflowed  others.  This 
hypothesis  acquires  a certain  plausibility  from  the  fact  that  the  series  of 
uplifts  and  downthrows  by  which  the  mountains  of  the  region  were  formed 
have  been  traced  down  to  a very  recent  date,  but  it  is  negatived  by  such  an 
array  of  facts  that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  tenable.  In  the  first  place,  the 
water  has  risen  against  all  the  shores  and  about  every  island  of  which  we 
have  account.  The  farmers  of  the  eastern  and  southern  margins  have  lost 
pastures  and  meadows  by  submergence.  At  the  north,  Bear  River  Bay  has 
advanced  several  miles  upon  the  land.  At  the  west,  a boat  has  recently 
sailed  a number  of  miles  across  tracts  that  were  traversed  by  Captain 
Stansbury’s  land  parties.  That  officer  has  described  and  mapped  Strong’s 
Knob  and  Stansbury  Island  as  peninsulas,  but  they  have  since  become 
islands.  Antelope  Island  is  no  longer  accessible  by  ford,  and  Egg  Island, 
the  nesting  ground  of  the  gulls  and  pelicans,  has  become  a reef.  Springs 
that  supplied  Captain  Stansbury  with  fresh  water  near  Promontory  Point 
are  now  submerged  and  inaccessible ; and  other  springs  have  been  covered 
on  the  shores  of  Antelope,  Stansbury,  and  Fremont  islands. 

In  the  second  place,  the  rise  of  the  lake  is  correlated  in  time  with  the 
increase  of  the  inflowing  streams,  which  has  been  everywhere  observed  by 
irrigators,  and  it  is  logical  to  refer  the  two  phenomena  to  the  same  cause. 

And,  finally,  if  upheaval  could  account  for  the  enlargement  of  the 
lake,  it  would  still  be  inadequate  to  account  for  the  maintenance  of  its 


68  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

increased  size,  in  the  face  of  an  evaporation  that  yearly  removes  a layer 
several  feet  in  depth.  The  same  compensatory  principle  that  restricts  the 
“limited  oscillation”  would  quickly  restore  the  equilibrium  between  inflow 
and  evaporation,  in  whatever  manner  in  was  disturbed. 

CLIMATIC  THEORY. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  change  is  a phenomenon  of  cli- 
mate, and  this  hypothesis  includes  harmoniously  the  increase  of  streams 
with  the  increase  of  lake  surface.  By  some  it  is  thought  that  the  climate 
of  the  district  is  undergoing,  or  has  undergone,  a permanent  change;  and 
by  others  that  the  series  of  oscillations  about  a mean  condition  which  char- 
acterizes every  climate  has  in  this  case  developed  a moist  phase  of  excep- 
tional degree  and  duration.  The  latter  view  was  my  own  before  I became 
aware  of  the  features  of  the  ancient  storm  line,  but  it  now  appears  to  me 
untenable.  That  a variable  surface  of  evaporation,  which  had  for  a long 
period  recognized  a limit  to  its  expansion,  should  not  merely  exceed  that 
limit,  but  should  maintain  an  abnormal  extent  for  more  than  a decade,  is  in 
a high  degree  improbable. 

It  is  far  more  probable  that  one  of  those  gradual  climatic  changes,  of 
which  geology  has  shown  the  magnitude  and  meteorology  has  illustrated 
the  slowness,  here  finds  a manifestation.  The  observed  change  is  apparently 
abrupt,  and  even  saltatory ; but  of  this  we  cannot  be  certain,  since  it  is 
impossible  from  a record  of  only  thirty  years  to  eliminate  the  limited  oscil- 
lation. It  is  quite  conceivable  that  were  such  elimination  effected,  the 
residual  change  would  appear  as  a continuous  and  equable  increase  of  the 
lake.  However  that  may  be,  a certain  degree  of  rapidity  of  change  is 
necessarily  involved,  for  the  climatic  change  which  is  able  in  a decade 
to  augment  by  a sixth  part  the  mean  area  of  evaporation  cannot  be  of 
exceeding  slowness.  If  we  can  ascertain  how  great  a change  would  be 
demanded,  it  will  be  well  to  compare  it  with  such  changes  as  have  been 
observed  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  see  whether  its  magnitude  is 
such  as  to  interfere  with  its  assumption. 

The  prevailing  winds  of  Utah  are  westerly,  and  it  may  be  said  in  a 
general  way  that  the  atmosphere  of  the  drainage  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


69 


is  part  of  an  air  current  moving-  from  west  to  east.  The  basin  having  no 
outlet,  the  precipitation  of  rain  and  snow  within  its  limits  must  be  counter- 
balanced by  the  evaporation.  The  air  current  must  on  the  average  absorb 
the  same  quantity  of  moisture  that  it  discharges.  Part  of  the  absorption  is 
from  land  surfaces  and  part  from  water,  the  latter  being  the  more  rapid. 

If,  now,  the  equilibrium  be  disturbed  by  an  augmented  humidity  of 
the  inflowing  air,  two  results  ensue.  On  the  one  hand  the  precipitation  is 
increased,  and  on  the  other,  the  absorbent  power  of  the  air  being  less,  the 
rate  of  evaporation  is  diminished.  In  so  dry  a climate  the  precipitation  is 
increased  in  greater  ratio  than  the  humidity,  and  the  rate  of  evaporation  is 
diminished  in  less  ratio ; while  of  the  increased  precipitation  an  increased 
percentage  gathers  in  streams  and  finds  its  way  to  the  lake.  ’ That  reservoir, 
having  its  inflow  augmented  and  its  rate  of  evaporation  decreased,  gains  in 
volume  and  grows  in  breadth  until  the  evaporation  from  the  added  expanse 
is  sufficient  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  Giving  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
lake  receives  a greater  percentage  of  the  total  downfall  than  before,  and 
to  the  fact  that  its  rate  of  evaporation  is  at  the  same  time  diminished  it  is 
evident  that  the  resultant  augmentation  of  the  lake  surface  is  more  than 
proportional  to  the  augmentation  of  the  precipitation. 

We  are  therefore  warranted  in  assuming  that  an  increase  of  humidity 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  observed  increase  of  17  per  cent,  in  the  size  of 
the  lake  would  modify  the  rainfall  by  less  than  17  per  cent.  The  actual 
change  of  rainfall  cannot  be  estimated  with  any  degree  of  precision,  but 
from  a review  of  such  data  as  are  at  my  command  I am  led  to  the  opinion 
that  an  allowance  of  10  per  cent,  would  be  as  likely  to  exceed  as  to  fall 
short,  while  an  allowance  of  7 per  cent,  would  be  at  the  verge  of  possibility. 

The  rainfall  of  some  other  portions  of  the  continent  has  been  recorded 
witli  such  a degree  of  thoroughness  and  for  such  a period  that  a term  of 
comparison  is  afforded.  In  his  discussion  of  the  precipitation  of  the  United 
States,  Mr.  Schott  has  grouped  the  stations  by  climatic  districts,  and 
deduced  the  annual  means  for  the  several  districts.  Making  use  of  his 
table  on  page  154  (Smithsonian  Contributions,  No.  222),  and  restricting 
my  attention  to  the  results  derived  from  five  or  more  stations,  I select  the 
following  extreme  cases  of  variation  between  the  mean  annual  rainfalls  of 


70  LANDS  OF  THE  AMD  LEGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


consecutive  decades.  District  I comprises  the  sea  coast  from  Maine  to 
Virginia,  and  the  record  includes  five  or  more  stations  from  1827  to  1867. 
From  the  decade  1831-40  to  the  decade  1841-50  the  rainfall  increased 
6 per  cent.  District  II  comprises  the  state  of  New  York  and  adjacent 
regions,  and  includes  five  or  more  stations  from  1830  to  1866.  From  the 
decade  1847-56  to  the  decade  1857-66  the  rainfall  increased  9 per  cent. 
District  IV  comprises  the  Ohio  Valley  and  adjacent  regions,  and  includes 
five  or  more  stations  from  1837  to  1866.  From  decade  1841-50  to  decade 
1851-60  the  rainfall  diminished  8 per  cent. 

The  case,  then,  stands  that  the  best  comparable  districts  and  epochs 
exhibit  extreme  fluctuations  from  decade  to  decade  of  from  6 to  9 per  cent , 
while  the  rise ‘of  Great  Salt  Lake  implies  a fluctuation  of  about  10  per 
cent.  But  before  deciding  that  the  hypothetical  fluctuation  in  Utah  is 
extraordinary,  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  in  the  dry 
climate  of  that  region  a given  change  in  humidity  will  produce  a relatively 
great  change  in  rainfall,  while  an  identical  change  of  rainfall,  measured  in 
inches,  acquires  an  exaggerated  importance  when  expressed  as  the  percent- 
age of  a small  total  rainfall.  Giving  due  weight  to  these  considerations, 
I am  led  to  conclude  that  the  assumed  increase  of  rainfall  in  Utah  is  not 
of  incredible  magnitude,  and  consequently  that  the  hypothesis  which 
ascribes  the  rise  of  the  lake  to  a change  of  climate  should  be  regarded  as 
tenable.  It  by  no  means  follows  that  it  is  proven,  and  so  long  as  it  depends 
on  an  assumption  the  truth  of  which  is  merely  possible,  but  not  established, 
it  can  claim  no  more  than  a provisional  acceptance. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that,  so  far  as  I entertain  the  idea  of  a change  of 
climate,  I do  so  without  referring  the  change  to  any  local  cause.  It  is 
frequently  asserted  that  the  cultivated  lands  of  Utah  “draw  the  rain”;  or 
that  the  prayers  of  the  religious  community  inhabiting  the  territory  have 
brought  water  to  their  growing  crops ; or  that  the  telegraph  wires  and 
iron  rails  which  gird  the  country  have  in  some  way  caused  electricity  to 
induce  precipitation ; but  none  of  these  agencies  seem  to  be  competent. 
The  weather  of  the  globe  is  a complex  whole,  each  part  of  which  reacts  on 
every  other,  and  each  part  of  which  depends  on  every  other.  The  weather 
of  Utah  is  an  interdependent  part  of  the  whole,  and  cannot  be  referred  to  its 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


71 


causes  until  the  entire  subject  is  mastered.  The  simpler  and  more  imme- 
diate meteoric  reactions  have  been  so  far  analyzed  that  their  results  are 
daily  predicted ; but  the  remote  sources  of  our  daily  changes,  as  well  as  the 
causes  of  the  greater  cycles  of  change,  are  still  beyond  our  reach.  Although 
withdrawn  from  the  domain  of  the  unknowable,  they  remain  within  that  of 
the  unknown. 

THEORY  OF  HUMAN  AGENCIES. 

The  only  remaining  theory  of  value  is  the  one  advocated  by  Pro- 
fessor Powell : that  the  phenomena  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  agency  of  man.  The  rise  of  the 
lake  and  the  increase  of  streams  have  been  observed  since  the  settlement  of 
the  country  by  the  white  man,  and  the  sage  brush  on  the  old  storm  line 
shows  that  they  had  not  been  carried  to  the  same  extent  at  any  previous 
period  in  the  century.  They  have  coincided  in  time  with  the  extension  of 
the  operations  of  civilization ; and  the  settlers  attach  this  idea  to  the  facts 
in  detail  as  well  as  in  general.  They  have  frequently  told  me  that 
wherever  and  whenever  a settlement  was  established,  there  followed  in  a 
few  years  an  increase  of  the  water  supply,  and  these  statements  have  been 
supported  by  such  enumerations  of  details  that  they  seem  worthy  of  consid- 
eration. If  they  are  well  founded,  the  secret  of  the  change  will  surely  be 
found  among  the  modifications  incident  to  the  operations  of  the  settler. 

Similar  testimony  was  gathered  by  Prof.  Cyrus  Thomas  in  1869  in 
regard  to  the  increase  of  water  supply  at  the  western  edge  of  the  plains, 
and ’the  following  conclusion  appears  in  his  report  to  Dr.  Hayden  (page 
237  of  the  reprint  of  Dr.  Hayden’s  reports  for  1867,  1868,  and  1869): 

All  this,  it  seems  to  me,  must  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  since  the  territory  [Colorado]  has  begun 
to  be  settled,  towns  and  cities  built  up,  farms  cultivated,  mines  opened,  and  roads  made  and  travelled, 
there  has  been  a gradual  increase  of  moisture.  Be  the  cause  what  it  may,  unless  it  is  assumed  that 
there  is  a cycle  of  years  through  which  there  is  an  increase,  and  that  there  will  be  a corresponding 
decrease,  the  fact  must  be  admitted  upon  this  accumulated  testimony.  I therefore  give  it  as  my  firm 
conviction  that  this  increase  is  of  a permanent  nature,  and  not  periodical,  and  that  it  has  commenceil 
■within  eight  years  past,  and  that  it  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  settlement  of  the  country,  and 
that  as  the  population  increases  the  moisture  will  increase. 

Notwithstanding  the  confidence  of  Professor  Thomas’s  conclusions,  lie 
appears  to  have  reached  them  by  a leap,  for  he  makes  no  attempt  to  analyze 
the  influence  of  civilized  man  on  nature  to  which  he  appeals.  Before  we 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


accept  liis  results,  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire  in  what  way  the  white  man 
has  modified  the  conditions  by  which  the  water  supply  is  controlled. 

To  facilitate  this  inquiry,  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  a new  and 
more  convenient  form  to  our  expression  of  the  amount  of  change  for  which 
it  is  necessary  to  account  in  the  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 

The  inflow  of  the  lake  is  derived  chiefly  from  three  rivers,  and  is 
susceptible  of  very  exact  determination.  Thorough  measurement  has  not 
yet  been  made,  but  there  has  been  a single  determination  of  each  river  and 
minor  stream,  and  a rough  estimate  can  be  based  on  them.  The  Bear  and 
the  Weber  were  measured  in  October,  187  7,  and  I am  led  by  the  analogy 
of  other  streams  and  by  the  characters  of  the  river  channels  to  judge  that 
the  mean  volume  of  the  Bear  for  the  year  was  twice  its  volume  at  the  date 
of  measurement,  and  that  of  the  Weber  four  times.  The  mean  flow  of  the 
Jordan  can  be  estimated  with  more  confidence,  for  reasons  which  will  appear 
in  a following  chapter.  The  “supply  from  other  sources”  mentioned  in  the 
table  includes  all  the  creeks  that  flow  from  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  between 
Draper  and  Hampden,  together  with  the  Malade  River,  Blue  Creek,  the  creeks 
of  Skull  and  Tooele  Valleys,  and  the  line  of  springs  that  encircles  the  lake. 


Bear  River,  measured  October  4, 1877,  at  Hampden  Bridge. 

Weber  River,  measured  October  11,  near  Ogden 

Jordan  River,  measured  July  8,  near  Draper 

Supply  from  other  sources 


The  result  expresses  the  mean  inflow  to  the  lake  in  1877,  and  is  prob- 
ably not  more  than  25  per  cent,  in  error.  The  total  inflow  for  the  year 
Avould  suffice  to  cover  the  lake  to  a deptli  of  60  inches.  In  the  same  year 
(or  from  October,  1876,  to  October,  1877)  the  lake  fell  6£  inches,  showing 
that  the  loss  by  evaporation  was  by  so  much  greater  than  the  gain  by 
inflow.  The  total  annual  evaporation  of  inflowing  water  may  therefore  be 
placed  provisionally  at  66£  inches.  If  we  add  to  this  the  rain  and  snow 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


73 


which  fall  on  the  lake,  we  deduce  a total  annual  evaporation  of  about  80 
inches  of  water ; but  for  the  present  purpose  it  will  be  more  convenient  to 
consider  the  former  figure. 

The  extent  of  the  Salt  Lake  basin  is  about  28,500  square  miles.  The 
western  portion,  amounting  to  12,500  miles,  sends  no  water  to  the  lake, 
yielding  all  its  rainfall  to  evaporation  within  its  own  limits.  The  remain- 
ing 16,000  miles  includes  both  plains  and  mountains,  and  its  tribute  is 
unequal.  To  supply  66^  inches  annually  to  the  whole  area  of  the  lake, 
2,125  miles,  it  must  yield  a sheet  of  water  with  an  average  thickness  of 
8.83  inches.  In  former  times,  when  the  lake  had  an  area  of  only  1,820 
miles,  the  yield  of  the  same  area  was  7.43  inches.  The  advance  from  7.43 
to  8.83,  or  the  addition  of  1 inch  and  4 tenths  to  the  mean  outflow  of  the 
district,  is  the  phenomenon  to  be  accounted  for. 

All  the  water  that  is  precipitated  within  the  district  as  rain  or  snow 
returns  eventually  to  the  air,  but  different  portions  are  returned  in  different 
ways.  Of  the  snow,  a portion  is  melted  and  a portion  is  evaporated  with- 
out melting.  Of  the  melted  snow  and  the  rain,  a part  is  absorbed  by  vege- 
tation and  soil,  and  is  afterward  reabsorbed  by  the  air ; another  part  runs 
from  the  surface  in  rills,  and  a third  part  sinks  into  the  underlying  forma- 
tions and  afterward  emerges  in  springs.  The  streams  which  arise  from 
springs  and  rills  are  again  divided.  Part  of  the  water  is  evaporated  from 
the  surfaces  of  the  streams  and  of  fresh  water  lakes  interrupting  their 
courses.  Another  part  enters  the  adjacent  porous  soils,  and  either  meets  in 
them  the  air  by  which  it  is  slowly  absorbed,  or  else  so  saturates  them  as  to 
produce  marshes  from  which  evaporation  progresses  rapidly  at  the  surface. 
The  remainder  flows  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  is  in  time  evaporated  from  its 
surface.  The  lesser  portion  of  the  precipitation  enters  the  lake;  the  greater 
is  intercepted  on  the  way  and  turned  back  to  the  air.  Whatever  man  has 
done  to  clear  the  way  for  the  flowing  water  has  diminished  local  evapora- 
tion and  helped  to  fill  the  lake.  Whatever  he  has  done  to  increase  local 
evaporation  has  tended  to  empty  the  lake. 

The  white  man  has  modified  the  conditions  of  drainage,  first,  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil ; second,  by  the  raising  of  herds ; and,  third,  by  the 
cutting  of  trees. 

10  A R 


74  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


1.  By  plowing  tlie  earth  the  farmer  has  rendered  it  more  porous  and 
absorbent,  so  that  a smaller  percentage  of  the  passing  shower  runs  off.  He 
has  destroyed  the  native  vegetation,  and  replaced  it  by  another  that  may 
or  may  not  increase  the  local  evaporation;  but  this  is  of  little  moment, 
because  his  operations  have  been  conducted  on  gentle  slopes  which  in  their 
natural  condition  contributed  very  little  to  the  streams.  It  is  of  greater 
import  that  he  has  diverted  water  already  accumulated  in  streams,  and  for 
the  purposes  of  irrigation  has  spread  it  broadly  upon  the  land,  whence  it  is 
absorbed  by  the  air.  In  this  way  he  has  diminished  the  inflow  of  the  lake. 

Incidental  to  the  work  of  irrigation  has  been  what  is  known  as  the 
“ opening  out  ” of  springs.  Small  springs  are  apt  to  produce  bogs  from 
which  much  water  is  evaporated,  and  it  has  been  found  that  by  running 
ditches  through  them  the  water  can  be  gathered  into  streams  instead.  The 
streams  of  water  thus  rescued  from  local  dissipation  are  consumed  in  irriga- 
tion during  a few  months  of  the  year,  but  for  the  remainder  go  to  swell 
the  rivers,  and  the  general  tendency  of  the  work  is  to  increase  the  inflow 
of  the  lake.  A similar  and  probably  greater  result  has  been  achieved  by 
the  cutting  of  beaver  dams.  In  its  natural  condition  every  stream  not  sub- 
ject to  violent  floods  was  ponded  from  end  to  end  by  the  beaver.  Its  water 
surface  was  greatly  expanded,  and  its  flood  plains  wefe  converted  into 
marshes.  The  irrigator  has  destroyed  the  dams  and  drained  the  marshes. 

There  are  a few  localities  where  drainage  has  been  resorted  to  for  the 
reclamation  of  wet  hay  lands,  and  that  work  has  the  same  influence  on  the 
discharge  to  the  lake. 

2.  The  area  affected  by  grazing  is  far  greater  than  that  affected  by 
farming.  Cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  have  ranged  through  all  the  valleys 
and  upon  all  the  mountains.  Over  large  areas  they  have  destroyed  the 
native  grasses,  and  they  have  everywhere  reduced  them.  Where  once  the 
water  from  rain  was  entangled  in  a mesh  of  vegetation  and  restrained  from 
gathering  into  rills,  there  is  now  only  an  open  growth  of  bushes  that  offer 
no  obstruction.  Where  once  the  snows  of  autumn  were  spread  on  a non- 
conducting mat  of  hay,  and  wasted  by  evaporation  until  the  sunshine 
came  to  melt  them,  they  now  fall  upon  naked  earth  and  are  melted  at  once 
by  its  warmth. 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


75 


The  treading  of  many  feet  at  the  boggy  springs  compacts  the  spongy 
mold  and  renders  it  impervious.  The  water  is  no  longer  able  to  percolate, 
and  runs  away  in  streams.  The  porous  beds  of  brooklets  are  in  the  same 
way  tramped  and  puddled  by  the  feet  of  cattle,  and  much  water  that 
formerly  sank  by  the  way  is  now  carried  forward. 

In  all  these  ways  the  herds  tend  to  increase  the  inflow  of  the  lake,  and 
there  is  perhaps  no  way  in  which  they  have  lessened  it. 

3.  The  cutting  of  trees  for  lumber  and  fence  material  and  fuel  has 
further  increased  the  streams.  By  the  removal  of  foliage,  that  share  of  the 
rain  and  snow  which  was  formerly  caught  by  it  and  thence  evaporated,  is 
now  permitted  to  reach  the  ground,  and  some  part  of  it  is  contributed  to 
the  streams.  Snow  beds  that  were  once  shaded  are  now  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  their  melting  is  so  accelerated  that  a comparatively  small  propor- 
tion of  their  contents  is  wasted  by  the  wind.  Moreover,  that  which  is 
melted  is  melted  more  rapidly,  and  a larger  share  of  it  is  formed  into  rills. 

On  the  whole,  it  appears  that  the  white  man  causes  a greater  per- 
centage of  the  precipitation  in  snow  to  be  melted  and  a less  percentage  to 
be  evaporated  directly.  This  follows  from  the  destruction  of  trees  and  of 
grass.  By  reducing  the  amount  of  vegetation  he  gives  a freer  flow  to  the 
water  from  rain  and  melting  snow  and  carries  a greater  percentage  of  it  to 
streams,  while  a smaller  percentage  reaches  the  air  by  evaporation  from  the 
soil.  By  the  treading  of  his  cattle  he  diminishes  the  leakage  of  the  smaller 
water  channels,  and  conserves  the  streams  gathered  there.  By  the  same 
means  and  by  the  digging  of  drains  he  dries  the  marshes  and  thereby 
enlarges  the  streams.  In  all  these  ways  he  increases  the  outflow  of  the 
land  and  the  inflow  of  the  lake.  He  diminishes  the  inflow  in  a notable 
degree  only  by  irrigation. 

The  direct  influence  of  irrigation  upon-  the  inflow  is  susceptible  of 
quantitative  statement.  Four  hundred  square  miles  of  land  in  Utah  and 
Idaho  are  fertilized  by  water  that  would  otherwise  flow  to  the  lake,  and 
they  dissipate  annually  a layer  of  about  20  inches.  To  supply  these  20 
inches  the  drainage  district  of  16,000  miles  yields  an  average  layer  of  0.5 
inch,  and  this  yield  is  in  addition  to  the  1.4  inches  required  to  maintain 
the  increase  of  lake  surface.  The  total  augmentation  of  the  annual  water 


7G  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


supply  is  therefore  represented  by  a sheet  1.9  inches  in  depth  covering 
the  entire  district. 

The  indirect  influence  of  irrigation,  and  the  influences  exerted  by  the 
grazier  and  the  woodman,  cannot  be  estimated  from  any  existing  data,  but 
of  their  tendencies  there  can  be  no  question.  To  some  extent  they  diminish 
local  evaporation,  and  induce  a larger  share  of  the  rainfall  to  gather  in  the 
streams;  and  to  one  who  has  contrasted  the  district  in  question  with 
similar  districts  in  their  virgin  condition,  there  seems  no  extravagance  in 
ascribing  to  them  the  whole  of  the  observed  change. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  it  has  been 
observed  that  the  floods  of  rivers  are  higher  than  formerly,  and  that  the  low 
stages  are  lower,  and  the  change  has  been  ascribed  by  Ellet  and  others  to 
the  destruction  of  the  native  vegetation.  The  removal  of  forests  and  of 
prairie  grasses  is  believed  to  facilitate  the  rapid  discharge  from  the  land  of 
the  water  from  rain  and  melted  snow,  and  to  diminish  the  amount  stored 
in  the  soil  to  maintain  springs.  In  an  arid  country  like  Utah,  where 
the  thirst  of  the  air  is  not  satisfied  by  the  entire  rainfall,  any  influence 
that  will  increase  the  rapidity  of  the  discharge  must  also  increase  the 
amount  of  the  discharge.  The  moisture  that  lingers  on  the  surface  is 
lost. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  most  wise  to  hold  the  question  an  open  one 
whether  the  water  supply  of  the  lake  has  been  increased  by  a climatic 
change  or  by  human  agency.  So  far  as  we  now  know,  neither  theory  is 
inconsistent  with  the  facts,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  truth  includes  both. 
The  former  appeals  to  a cause  that  may  perhaps  be  adequate,  but  is  not 
independently  known  to  exist.  The  latter  appeals  to  causes  known  to 
exist  but  quantitatively  undetermined. 

It  is  gratifying  to  turn  to  the  economic  bearings  of  the  question,  for 
the  theories  best  sustained  by  facts  are  those  most  flattering  to  the  agricul- 
tural future  of  the  Arid  Region.  If  the  filling  of  the  streams  and  the  rise 
of  the  lake  were  due  to  a transient  extreme  of  climate,  that  extreme  would 
be  followed  by  a return  to  a mean  condition,  or  perhaps  by  an  oscillation 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  a large  share  of  the  fields  now  productive 
would  be  stricken  "by  drought  and  returned  to  the  desert. 


WATER  SUrrLY. 


77 


If  the  increase  of  water  supply  is  due  to  a progressive  change  of 
climate  forming  part  of  a long  cycle,  it  is  practically  permanent,  and 
future  changes  are  more  likely  to  be  in  the  same  advantageous  direction 
than  in  the  opposite.  The  lands  now  reclaimed  are  assured  for  years  to 
come,  and  there  is  every  encouragement  for  the  work  of  utilizing  the  exist- 
ing streams  to  the  utmost. 

And  finally,  if  the  increase  of  water  supply  is  due  to  the  changes 
wrought  by  the  industries  of  the  white  man,  the  prospect  is  even  better. 
Not  only  is  every  gain  of  the  present  assured  for  the  future,  but  future 
gain  may  be  predicted.  Not  alone  are  the  agricultural  facilities  of  this 
district  improving,  but  the  facilities  in  the  whole  Rocky  Mountain  Region 
are  improving  and  will  improve.  Not  only  does  the  settler  incidentally 
and  unconsciously  enhance  his  natural  privilege,  but  it  is  possible,  by  the 
aid  of  a careful  study  of  the  subject,  to  devise  such  systematic  methods  as 
shall  render  his  work  still  more  effectual. 

FARMING  WITHOUT  IRRIGATION. 

The  general  rule  that  agriculture  in  Utah  is  dependent  on  artificial 
irrigation  finds  exception  in  two  ways.  First,  there  are  some  localities 
naturally  irrigated;  and,  second,  there  is  at  least  one  locality  of  which  the 
local  climate  permits  dry  farming. 

Along  the  low  banks  of  many  streams  there  are  fertile  strips  of  land. 
The  soil  is  in  every  such  case  of  a porous  nature,  and  water  from  the 
stream  percolates  laterally  and  rises  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Nearly  all 
such  lands  are  flooded  in  spring  time,  and  they  are  usually  devoted  to  hay 
as  an  exclusive  crop;  but  some  of  them  are  above  ordinary  floods  and  are 
suited  for  other  uses.  It  rarely  happens,  however,  that  they  are  farmed 
without  some  irrigation,  for  the  reason  that  the  use  of  the  convenient  water 
render  the  harvest  more  secure  and  abundant. 

The  same  fertility  is  sometimes  induced  by  subterranean  waters  which 
have  no  connection  with  surface  streams.  In  such  cases  there  is  usually, 
and  perhaps  always,  an  impervious  subsoil  which  retains  percolating  water 
near  the  surface.  A remarkable  instance  of  this  sort  is  known  at  the  western 
base  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains.  A strip  of  land  from  20  to  40  rods  broad, 


78  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  marking  the  junction  of  the  mountain  slope  with  the  plain,  has  been 
found  productive  from  Hampton’s  Bridge  to  Brigham  City,  a distance  of 
18  miles.  In  some  parts  it  has  been  irrigated,  with  the  result  of  doubling 
or  trebling  the  yield,  but  where  water  has  not  been  obtained,  the  farmer 
has  nevertheless  succeeded  in  extracting  a living.  A similar  but  narrower 
belt  of  land  lies  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Promontory  range,  and  a few 
others  have  been  found.  In  each  locality  the  proximity  of  subterranean 
water  to  the  surface  is  shown  by  the  success  of  shallow  wells,  and  there  is 
evidently  a natural  irrigation. 

There  is  one  region,  however,  where  natural  irrigation  is  out  of  the 
question,  but  where  crops  have  nevertheless  been  secured.  Bear  River 
“ City”  was  founded  by  a company  of  Danes,  who  brought  the  water  of 
the  Malade  River  to  irrigate  their  fields.  After  repeated  experiment  they 
became  satisfied  that  the  water  was  so  brackish  as  to  be  injurious  instead 
of  beneficial,  and  ceased  to  use  it ; and  for  a number  of  years  they  have 
obtained  a meagre  subsistence  by  dry  farming.  A district  lying  south  of 
Ogden  and  east  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  known  as  “the  Sand  Ridge”,  has 
recently  been  brought  in  use,  and  in  1876  and  1877  winter  wheat  was 
harvested  with  a yield  variously  reported  as  from  10  to  15  bushels  per 
acre.  This  success  is  regarded  by  some  of  the  older  settlers  as  temporary 
and  delusive,  for  it  is  said  to  have  depended  on  exceptional  spring  rains ; 
but  the  majority  of  the  community  have  faith  in  its  permanence,  and  the 
experiment  is  being  pushed  in  many  valleys.  In  Bear  River  Cit}^  and  on 
the  Sand  Ridge  water  is  not  found  by  shallow  wells,  and  the  land  is  naturally 
dry.  In  these  localities,  and,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  in  all  others  where  dry 
land  has  been  successfully  farmed,  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  this  appears  to  be 
an  essential  condition.  Success  has  moreover  been  restricted  to  the  line  of 
valleys  which  lie  at  the  western  base  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  and  near 
Great  Salt  Lake. 

This  last  feature  depends,  as  I conceive,  on  a local  peculiarity  of 
climate.  The  general  movement  of  the  atmosphere  is  from  west  to  east, 
and  the  air  which  crosses  the  lake  is  immediately  lifted  from  its  level  to 
the  crest  of  the  Wasatch.  Having  acquired  from  the  lake  an  addition  to 
its  quota  of  moisture,  it  has  less  power  of  absorption  and  a greater  tendency 


WATER  SUPPLY. 


79 


to  precipitation  than  the  atmosphere  in  general,  and  it  confers  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake  a climate  of  exceptional  humidity. 

The  character  of  this  climate  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  assemblage  of 
the  observed  facts  in  regard  to  precipitation.  Through  the  kindness  of 
Prof.  Joseph  Henry  I have  been  permitted  to  examine  the  rain  records 
accumulated  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  including  not  only  those  which 
have  been  embodied  in  the  published  “ Tables  /'  but  the  more  recent  data 
to  be  included  in  the  forthcoming  second  edition.  The  following  table 
shows  the  mean  annual  precipitation  for  all  stations  in  Utah,  Nevada, 
Wyoming,  and  Colorado,  which  have  a record  two  years  or  more  in  extent, 
together  with  certain  other  facts  for  comparison.  The  temperature  means 
are  taken  from  the  Smithsonian  Temperature  Tables  and  the  United  States 
Signal  Service  Reports. 


80  LANDS  or  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Two  of  the  stations,  Salt  Lake  City  and  Camp  Douglas,  lie  within  the 
zone  of  climate  modified  by  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  a brief  inspection  of  the 
table  will  show  how  greatly  their  climate  is  influenced.  As  a general  rule, 
the  localities  of  greatest  precipitation  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  have 
so  great  altitude  that  their  summer  temperature  does  not  permit  agriculture, 
but  Salt  Lake  City,  with  an  altitude  1,000  feet  below  the  average  of  the  24 
stations,  and  a temperature  4°  above  the  average,  has  a rainfall  11  inches 
greater  than  the  average;  and  Camp  Douglas,  3°  warmer  than  the  average 
and  250  feet  lower,  has  a rainfall  5 inches  greater.  If  the  two  stations  are 
compared  with  those  which  lie  nearest  them,  the  contrast  is  still  more 
striking.  Camp  Halleck,  130  miles  west  of  the  lake,  and  600  feet  higher 
than  Camp  Douglas,  has  a rainfall  of  11  inches  only.  Fort  Bridger,  90 
miles  east  of  the  lake  and  1,600  feet  higher  than  Camp  Douglas,  has  a rain- 
fall of  8 inches.  Camp  Floyd,  30  miles  south  of  the  lake  and  sheltered 
from  its  influence  by  mountains,  receives  only  inches.  But  Salt  Lake 
City  and  Camp  Douglas,  lying  between  the  lake  and  the  Wasatch  Range, 
record  respectively  24.8  and  18.8  inches. 

In  fine,  it  appears  that  the  climate  of  the  eastern  shore  of  Great  Salt 
Lake  is  decidedly  exceptional  and  approximates  in  humidity  to  that  of 
Central  Kansas.  The  fact  that  it  admits  of  dry  farming  gives  no  warrant 
for  the  belief  that  large  areas  in  the  Arid  Region  can  be  cultivated  without 
irrigation,  but  serves  rather  to  confirm  the  conclusion  that  the  limit  to 
remunerative  dry  farming  is  practically  drawn  by  the  isoliyetal  line  of  22 
inches.  Even  in  this  most  favored  district  the  yield  is  so  small  that  it  can 
be  doubled  by  irrigation,  and  eventually  water  ditches  will  be  carried  to 
nearly  all  the  land  that  has  yet  been  plowed. 


CHAPTER  V. 


CERTAIN  IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATING 
TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS. 

THE  UNIT  OF  WATER  USED  IN  IRRIGATION. 

The  unit  of  water  employed  in  mining  as  well  as  manufacturing  enter- 
prises in  the  west  is  usually  the  inch,  meaning  thereby  the  amount  of  water 
which  will  flow  through  an  orifice  one  inch  square.  But  in  practice  this 
quantity  is  very  indefinite,  due  to  the  “head”  or  amount  of  pressure  from 
above.  In  some  districts  this  latter  is  taken  at  six  inches.  Another  source 
of  uncertainty  exists  in  the  fact  that  increase  in  the  size  of  the  orifice  and 
increase  in  the  amount  of  flow  do  not  progress  in  the  same  ratio.  An  ori- 
fice of  one  square  inch  will  not  admit  of  a discharge  one-tenth  as  great  as 
an  orifice  of  ten  square  inches.  An  inch  of  water,  therefore,  is  variable 
with  the  size  of  the  stream  as  well  as  with  the  head  or  pressure.  For  these 
reasons  it  seemed  better  to  take  a more  definite  quantity  of  water,  and  for 
this  purpose  the  second-foot  has  been  adopted.  By  its  use  the  volume  of  a 
stream  will  be  given  by  stating  the  number  of  cubic  feet  which  the  stream 
will  deliver  per  second. 

THE  QUANTITATIVE  VALUE  OF  WATER  IN  IRRIGATION. 

In  general,  throughout  the  Arid  Region  the  extent  of  the  irrigable 
land  is  limited  by  the  water  supply ; the  arable  lands  are  much  greater 
than  the  irrigable.  Hence  it  becomes  necessary,  in  determining  the  amount 
of  irrigable  lands  with  reasonably  approximate  accuracy,  to  determine  the 

81 

11  A R 


82  LANDS  OF  THE  AEID  EEGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

value  of  water  in  irrigation ; tliat  is,  the  amount  of  land  which  a given 
amount  ol  water  will  serve. 

All  questions  of  concrete  or  applied  science  are  more  or  less  complex 
by  reason  of  the  multifarious  conditions  found  in  nature,  and  this  is 
eminently  true  of  the  problem  we  are  now  to  solve,  namely,  how  much 
water  must  an  acre  of  land  receive  by  irrigation  to  render  agriculture 
thereon  most  successful ; or,  how  much  land  will  a given  amount  of  water 
adequately  supply.  This  will  be  affected  by  the  following  general  condi- 
tions, namely,  the  amount  of  water  that  will  be  furnished  by  rainfall,  for 
if  there  is  rainfall  in  the  season  of  growing  crops,  irrigation  is  necessary 
only  to  supply  the  deficiency  ; second,  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil. 
If  the  conditions  of  soil  are  unfavorable,  the  water  supply  may  be  speedily 
evaporated  on  the  one  hand,  or  quickly  lost  by  subterranean  drainage  on 
the  other ; but  if  there  be  a soil  permitting  the  proper  permeation  of  water 
downward  and  upward,  and  an  impervious  subsoil,  the  amount  furnished 
by  artificial  irrigation  will  be  held  in  such  a manner  as  to  serve  the  soil 
bearing  crops  to  the  greatest  extent;  and,  lastly,  there  is  a great  difference 
in  the  amount  of  water  needed  for  different  crops,  some  requiring  less, 
others  more. 

Under  these  heads  come  the  general  complicating  conditions.  In  the 
mountainous  country  the  areal  distribution  of  rainfall  is  preeminently 
variable,  as  the  currents  of  air  which  carry  the  water  are  deflected  in 
various  ways  by  diverse  topographic  inequalities.  The  rainfall  is  also 
exceedingly  irregular,  varying  from  year  to  year,  and  again  from  season 
to  season. 

But  in  all  these  varying  conditions  of  time  and  space  there  is  one  fact 
which  must  control  our  conclusions  in  considering  most  of  the  lands  of  the 
Arid  Region,  namely : any  district  of  country  which  we  may  be  studying  is 
liable  for-  many  seasons  in  a long  series  to  be  without  rainfall,  when  the 
whole  supply  must  be  received  from  irrigation.  Safety  in  agricultural  opera- 
tions will  be  secured  by  neglecting  the  rainfall  and  considering  only  the 
supply  of  water  to  be  furnished  by  artificial  methods ; the  less  favorable 
seasons  must  be  considered  ; in  the  more  favorable  there  will  be  a surplus. 
In  general,  this  statement  applies  throughout  the  Arid  Region,  but  there 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS.  83 


are  some  limited  localities  where  a small  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  season 
of  growing  crops  seems  to  be  constant  from  year  to  year.  .In  such  districts 
irrigation  will  only  be  used  to  supply  deficiencies. 

The  complicating  conditions  arising  from  soil  and  subsoil  are  many. 
Expeiience  has  already  shown  that  there  are  occasional  conditions  of*  soil 
and  subsoil  so  favorable  that  the  water  may  be  supplied  before  the  growing 
season,  and  the  subsoil  will  hold  it  for  weeks,  or  even  months,  and  gradually 
yield  the  moisture  to  the  overlying  soil  by  slow  upward  percolation  or 
capillary  attraction  during  the  season  when  growing  crops  require  its  fer- 
tilizing effect.  When  such  conditions  of  soil  and  subsoil  obtain,  the  con- 
struction of  reservoirs  is  unnecessary,  and  the  whole  annual  supply  of  the 
streams  may  be  utilized.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  extremely  pervious 
soils  underlaid  by  sands  and  gravels,  which  speedily  carry  away  the  water 
by  a natural  under  drainage.  Here  a maximum  supply  by  irrigation  is 
necessary,  as  the  soils  must  be  kept  moist  by  frequent  flowing.  Under 
such  conditions  the  amount  of  water  to  be  supplied  is  many  fold  greater 
than  under  the  conditions  previously  mentioned,  and  between  these 
extremes  almost  infinite  variety  prevails. 

Practical  agriculture  by  irrigation  has  also  demonstrated  the  fact  that 
the  wants  of  different  crops  are  exceedingly  variable,  some  requiring  many 
fold  the  amount  of  others.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  length  of  time 
necessary  to  the  maturing  of  the  crops,  in  part  to  the  amount  of  constant 
moisture  necessary  to  their  successful  growth.  But  by  excluding  the  varia- 
bility due  to  rainfall,  and  considering  only  that  due  to  differences  of  soils 
and  crops,  and  by  taking  advantage  of  a wide  experience,  a general 
average  may  be  obtained  of  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  purposes  here  in 
view. 

In  examining  the  literature  of  this  subject  it  was  found  that  the 
experience  in  other  countries  could  not  be  used  as  a guide  in  considering 
our  problems.  In  general,  irrigation  in  Europe  and  Asia  is  practiced  only 
to  supply  deficiencies,  and  the  crops  there  raised  are  only  in  part  the 
same  as  with  us,  and  the  variation  on  account  of  the  crops  is  very  great. 
Certain  statements  of  Marsh  in  his  “Man  and  Nature”  have  been  copied 
into  the  journals  and  reports  published  in  the  United  States,  and  made  to 


84  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


do  duty  on  many  occasions ; but  these  statements  are  rather  misleading,  as 
the  experience  of  farmers  in  the  Arid  Region  has  abundantly  demonstrated. 
The  writers  who  have  used  them  have  in  general  overestimated  the  quanti- 
tative value  of  water  in  irrigation.  The  facts  in  Italy,  in  Spain,  in  Gren- 
ada,, and  India  are  valuable  severally  for  discussion  in  the  countries  named, 
but  must  be  used  in  a discussion  of  the  arid  lands  of  the  United  States  with 
much  care.  It  seemed  better,  under  these  circumstances,  to  determine  the 
quantitative  value  of  water  in  irrigation  in  Utah  from  the  experience  of  the 
farmers  of  Utah.  Irrigation  has  there  been  practiced  for  about  thirty 
years,  and  gradually  during  that  time  the  area  of  land  thus  redeemed  has 
been  increased,  until  at  present  about  325,000  acres  of  land  are  under 
cultivation.  A great  variety  of  crops  have  been  cultivated — corn,  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  garden  vegetables,  orchard  trees,  fruits,  vines,  etc.,  etc. ; and  even 
the  fig  tree  and  sugar  cane  are  there  raised. 

During  the  past  six  or  seven  years  I have  from  time  to  time,  as  occasion 
was  afforded,  directed  my  attention  to  this  problem,  but  being  exceedingly 
complex,  a very  wide  range  of  facts  must  be  considered  in  order  to  obtain 
a reasonably  approximate  average.  During  the  past  year  the  task  of  more 
thoroughly  investigating  this  subject  was  delegated  to  Mr.  Gilbert.  The 
results  of  his  studies  appear  in  a foregoing  chapter,  written  by  him ; but 
it  may  be  stated  here  that  he  has  reached  the  conclusion  that  a continuous 
flow  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second,  i.  e.,  a second-foot  of  water,  will, 
in  most  of  the  lands  of  Utah,  serve  about  100  acres  for  the  general  average 
of  crops  cultivated  in  that  country ; but  to  secure  that  amount  of  service 
from  the  water  very  careful  and  economic  methods  of  irrigation  must 
be  practiced.  At  present,  there  are  few  instances  where  such  economic 
methods  are  used.  In  general,  there  is  a great  wastage,  due  to  badly  con- 
structed canals,  from  which  the  water  either  percolates  away  or  breaks  away 
from  time  to  time;  due,  also,  to  too  rapid  flow,  and  also  to  an  excessive  use 
of  the  water,  as  there  is  a tendency  among  the  farmers  to  irrigate  too 
frequently  and  too  copiously,  errors  corrected  only  by  long  experience. 

The  studies  of  Mr.  Gilbert,  under  the  circumstances,  were  quite 
thorough,  and  his  conclusions  accord  with  my  own,  derived  from  a more 
desultory  but  longer  study  of  the  subject. 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS.  85 


AREA  OF  IRRIGABLE  LAND  SOMETIMES  NOT  LIMITED  BY  WATER  SUPPLY. 

While,  as  a general  fact,  the  area  of  arable  land  is  greater  than  the  area 
of  irrigable  land,  by  reason  of  the  insufficient  supply  of  water,  yet  in  con- 
sidering limited  tracts  it  may  often  be  found  that  the  supply  of  water  is  so 
great  that  only  a part  of  it  can  be  used  thereon.  In  such  cases  the  area  of 
irrigable  land  is  limited  by  the  extent  to  which  the  water  can  be  used  by 
proper  engineering  skill.  This  is  true  in  considering  some  portions  of  Utah, 
where  the  waters  of  the  Green  and  Colorado  cannot  all  be  used  within  that 
territory.  Eventually  these  surplus  waters  will  be  used  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  THE  SUPPLY  OF  WATER. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  irrigable  land  in  Utah,  it  was  necessary 
to  consider  the  supply;  that  is,  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  flowing 
in  the  several  streams.  Again,  this  quantity  is  variable  in  each  stream  from 
season  to  season  and  from  year  to  year.  The  irrigable  season  is  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  year.  To  utilize  the  entire  annual  discharge  of  the 
water,  it  would  be  necessary  to  hold  the  surplus  flowing  in  the  non-growing 
season  in  reservoirs,  and  even  by  this  method  the  whole  amount  could  not 
be  utilized,  as  a great  quantity  would  be  lost  by  evaporation.  As  the  utili- 
zation of  the  water  by  reservoirs  will  be  to  a great  extent  postponed  for 
many  years,  the  question  of  immediate  practical  importance  is  resolved 
into  a consideration  of  the  amount  of  water  that  the  streams  will  afford 
during  the  irrigating  season.  But  in  the  earlier'  part  of  the  season  the  flow 
in  most  of  the  streams  in  this  western  region  is  great,  and  it  steadily 
diminishes  to  the  end  of  the  summer.  Earlier  in  the  season  there  is  more 
water,  while  for  the  average  of  crops  the  greater  amount  is  needed  later. 

The  practical  capacity  of  a stream  will  then  be  determined  by  its  flow 
at  the  time  when  that  is  least  in  comparison  with  the  demands  of  the  grow- 
ing crops.  This  will  be  called  the  critical  period,  and  the  volume  of  water 
of  the  critical  period  will  determine  the  capacity  of  the  stream.  The  criti- 
cal period  will  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  region  from  the  latter  part  of 
June  until  the  first  part  of  August.  For  the  purposes  of  this  discussion  it 
was  only  necessary  to  determine  the  flow  of  the  water  during  the  critical 


86  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


period.  This  has  been  done  by  very  simple  methods.  Usually  in  each 
case  a section  of  the  stream  has  been  selected  having'  the  least  possible 
variation  of  outline  and  flow.  A cross-section  of  the  stream  has  been 
measured,  and  the  velocity  of  flow  determined.  With  these  factors  the 
capacity  of  the  streams  has  been  obtained.  In  some  cases  single  measure- 
ments have  been  made;  in  others  several  at  different  seasons,  rarely  in 
different  years.  The  determination  of  the  available  volume  of  the  several 
streams  by  such  methods  is  necessarily  uncertain,  especially  from  the  fact 
that  it  has  not  always  been  possible  to  gauge  the  streams  exactly  at  the 
critical  period;  and,  again,  the  flow  in  one  season  may  differ  materially  from 
that  in  another.  But  as  the  capacity  of  a stream  should  never  be  rated  by 
its  volume  in  seasons  of  abundant  flow,  we  have  endeavored  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  determine  the  capacity  of  the  streams  in  low  water  years.  Alto- 
gether the  amount  of  water  in  the  several  streams  has  been  determined 
crudely,  and  at  best  the  data  given  must  be  considered  tolerable  approxi- 
mations. In  considering  the  several  streams  experience  may  hereafter 
discover  many  errors,  but  as  the  number  of  determinations  is  great,  the 
average  may  be  considered  good. 

METHODS  OF  DETERMINING  THE  EXTENT  OF  IRRIGABLE  LAND  UNLIMITED  BY 
WATER  SUPPLY. 

In  the  few  cases  where  the  water  supply  is  more  than  sufficient  to  serve 
the  arable  lands,  the  character  of  the  problem  is  entirely  changed,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  then  to  determine  the  area  to  which  the  waters  can  be 
carried.  These  problems  are  hypsometric;  relative  altitudes  are  the  gov- 
erning conditions.  The  hypsometric  methods  were  barometric  and  angular; 
that  is,  from  the  barometric  stations  vertical  angles  were  taken  and  recorded 
to  all  the  principal  points  in  the  topography  of  the  country;  mercurial  and 
aneroid  barometers  were  used,  chiefly  the  former;  the  latter  to  a limited 
extent,  for  subsidiary  work.  Angular  measurements  were  made  with  gra- 
dientors  to  a slight  extent,  but  chiefly  with  the  orograph,  an  instrument  by 
which  a great  multiplicity  of  angles  are  observed  and  recorded  by  mechan- 
ical methods.  This  instrument  was  devised  by  Professor  Thompson  for  the 
use  of  the  survey,  and  has  been  fully  described  in  the  reports  on  the 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS.  87 


geographical  operations.  To  run  hypsometric  lines  with  spirit  levels  would 
have  involved  a great  amount  of  labor  and  been  exceedingly  expensive, 
and  such  a method  was  entirely  impracticable  with  the  means  at  command, 
but  the  methods  used  give  fairly  approximate  results,  and  perhaps  all  that 
is  necessary  for  the  purposes  to  be  subserved. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  IRKIGABLE  LANDS. 

From  the  fact  that  the  area  ‘of  arable  lands  greatly  exceeds  the 
irrigable,  or  the  amount  which  the  waters  of  the  streams  will  serve,  a wide 
choice  in  the  selection  of  the  latter  is  permitted.  The  considerations  affect- 
ing the  choice  are  diverse,  but  fall  readily  into  two  classes,  viz:  physical 
conditions  and  artificial  conditions.  The  mountains  and  high  plateaus  are 
the  great  aqueous  condensers ; the  mountains  and'  high  plateaus  are  also 
the  reservoirs  that  hold  the  water  fed  to  the  streams  in  the  irrigating  season, 
for  the  fountains  from  which  the  rivers  flow  are  the  snow  fields  of  the 
highlands.  After  the  streams  heave  the  highlands  they  steadily  diminish  in 
volume,  the  loss  being  due  in  part  to  direct  evaporation,  and  in  part  to 
percolation  in  the  sands  from  which  the  waters  are  eventually  evaporated. 
In  like  manner  irrigating  canals  starting  near  the  mountains  and  running 
far  out  into  the  valleys  and  plains  rapidly  diminish  in  the  volume  of  flowing 
water.  Looking  to  the  conservation  of  water,  it  is  best  to  select  lands  as 
high  along  the  streams  as  possible.  But  this  consideration  is  directly 
opposed  by  considerations  relating  to  temperature;  the  higher  the  land  the 
colder  the  climate.  Where  the  great  majority  of  streams  have  their  sources, 
agriculture  is  impossible  on  account  of  prevailing  summer  frosts ; the  lower 
the  altitude  the  more  genial  the  temperature ; the  lower  the  land  the  greater 
the  variety  of  crops  which  can  be  cultivated ; and  to  the  extent  that  the 
variety  of  crops  is  multiplied  the  irrigating  season  is  lengthened,  until  the 
maximum  is  reached  in  low  altitudes  and  low  latitudes  where  two  crops 
can  be  raised  annually  on  the  same  land.  In  the  selection  of  lands,  as 
governed  by  these  conditions,  the  higher  lands  will  be  avoided  on  the  one 
hand  because  of  the  rigor  of  the  climate;  if  these  conditions  alone  governed, 
no  settlement  should  be  made  in  Utah  above  6,500  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  in  general  still  lower  lands  should  be  used ; on  the  other  hand 


88  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

the  irrigable  lands  should  not  be  selected  at  such  a distance  from  the  source 
of  the  stream  as  to  be  the  occasion  of  a great  loss  of  water  by  direct  and 
indirect  evaporation.  For  general  climatic  reasons,  the  lands  should  be 
selected  as  low  as  possible;  for  economy  of  water  as  high  as  possible;  and 
these  conditions  in  the  main  will  cause  the  selections  to  be  made  along  the 
middle  courses  of  the  streams.  But  this  general  rule  will  be  modified  by 
minor  physical  conditions  relating  to  soil  and  slope — soils  that  will  best 
conserve  the  water  will  be  selected,  and  land  with  the  gentlest  slopes  will 
be  taken. 

In  general,  the  descent  of  the  streams  in  the  arid  land  is  very  great;  for 
this  reason  the  flood  plains  are  small,  that  is,  the  extent  of  the  lands  adjacent 
to  the  streams  which  are  subject  to  overflow  at  high  water  is  limited.  In 
general,  these  flood-plain  lands  should  not  be  chosen  for  irrigation,  from  the 
fact  that  the  irrigating  canals  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  during  flood  seasons. 
Where  the  plan  of  irrigation  includes  the  storage  of  the  water  of  the  non- 
growing season,  by  which  all  the  waters  of  the  year  are  held  under  control, 
the  flood-plain  lands  can  be  used  to  advantage,  from  the  fact  that  they  lie  in 
such  a way  as  to  be  easily  irrigated  and  their  soils  possess  elements  and 
conditions  of  great  fertility. 

Other  locally  controlling  conditions  are  found  in  selecting  the  most 
'advantageous  sites  for  the  necessary  water  works. 

These  are  the  chief  physical  factors  which  enter  into  the  problem,  and 
in  general  it  will  be  solved  by  considering  these  factors  only ; but  occasion- 
ally artificial  conditions  will  control. 

The  mining  industries  of  the  Arid  Region  are  proportionately  greater 
than  in  the  more  humid  country.  Where  valuable  mines  are  discovered 
towns  spring  up  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  and  they  must  be  served  with 
water  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  garden  culture.  When  possible,  agri- 
culture will  be  practiced  in  the  immediate  vicinity  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
advantage  of  the  local  market.  In  like  manner  towns  spring  up  along  the 
railroads,  and  agriculture  will  be  carried  on  in  their  vicinity.  For  this  and 
like  reasons  the  streams  of  the  Arid  Region  will  often  be  used  on  lands 
where  they  cannot  be  made  the  most  available  under  physical  conditions, 
and  yet  under  such  circumstances  artificial  conditions  must  prevail. 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATING  TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS.  89 


In  the  indication  of  specific  areas  as  irrigable  on  the  accompanying 
map  of  Utah,  it  must  be  considered  that  the  selections  made  are  but  ten- 
tative ; the  areas  chosen  are  supposed  to  be,  under  all  the  circumstances, 
the  most  available ; but  each  community  will  settle  this  problem  for  itself, 
and  the  circumstances  which  will  control  any  particular  selection  cannot 
be  foretold.  It  is  believed  that  the  selections  made  will  be  advantageous 
to  the  settler,  by  giving  him  the  opinions  of  men  who  have  made  the  sub- 
ject a study,  and  will  save  many  mistakes. 

The  history  of  this  subject  in  Utah  is  very  instructive.  The  greater 
number  of  people  in  the  territory  who  engage  in  agriculture  are  organized 
into  ecclesiastical  bodies,  trying  the  experiment  of  communal  institutions. 
In  this  way  the  communal  towns  are  mobile.  This  mobility  is  increased 
by  the  fact  that  the  towns  are  usually  laid  out  on  Government  lands,  and 
for  a long  time  titles  to  the  land  in  severalty  are  not  obtained  by  the  people. 
It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  church  to  send  a number  of  people,  organized 
as  a community,  to  a town  site  on  some  stream  to  be  used  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  lands,  and  rarely  has  the  first  selection  made  been  final.  Luxuriant 
vegetation  has  often  tempted  the  settlers  to  select  lands  at  too  great  an 
altitude,  and  many  towns  have  been  moved  down  stream.  Sometimes 
selections  have  been  made  too  far  away  from  the  sources  of  the  streams, 
and  to  increase  the  supply  of  water,  towns  have  been  moved  up  stream. 
Sometimes  lands  of  too  great  slope  have  been  chosen,  and  here  the  waters 
have  rapidly  cut  deep  channels  and  destroyed  the  fields.  Sometimes  alka- 
line lands  are  selected  and  abandoned,  and  sometimes  excessively  sandy 
lands  have  caused  a change  to  be  made ; but  the  question  of  the  best  sites 
■for  the  construction  of  works  for  controlling  and  distributing  the  water  has 
usually  determined  the  selection  of  lands  within  restricted  limits. 

To  a ■ very  slight  extent  indeed  have  artificial  conditions  controlled  in 
Utah ; the  several  problems  have  generally  been  solved  by  the  considera- 
tion of  physical  facts. 

INCREASE  IN  THE  WATER  SUPPLY. 

Irrigation  has  been  practiced  in  different  portions  of  the  Arid  Region 
for  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  and  the  area  cultivated  by  this 
12  A R 


90  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


means  has  been  steadily  increasing  during  that  time.  In  California  and 
New  Mexico  irrigation  has  been  practiced  to  a limited  extent  for  a much 
longer  time  at  the  several  Catholic  missions  under  the  old  Spanish  regime. 
In  the  history  of  the  settlement  of  the  several  districts  an  important  fact  has 
been  uniformly  observed — in  the  first  years  of  settlement  the  streams  have 
steadily  increased  in  volume.  This  fact  has  been  observed  alike  in  Cali- 
fornia, Utah,  Colorado,  and  wherever  irrigation  has  been  practiced.  As 
the  chief  development  of  this  industry  has  been  within  the  last  fifteen  years, 
it  has  been  a fact  especially  observed  during  that  time.  An  increase  in  the 
water  supply,  so  universal  of  late  years,  has  led  to  many  conjectures  and 
hypotheses  as  to  its  origin.  It  has  generally  been  supposed  to  result  from 
increased  rainfall,  and  this  increased  rainfall  now  from  this,  now  from  that, 
condition  of  affairs.  Many  have  attributed  the  change  to  the  laying  of 
railroad  tracks  and  construction  of  telegraph  lines;  others  to  the  cultivation 
df  the  soil,  and  not  a few  to  the  interposition  of  Divine  Providence  in 
behalf  of  the  Latter  Day  Saints. 

If  each  physical  cause  was  indeed  a vera  causa,  their  inability  to  pro- 
duce the  results  is  quite  manifest.  A single  railroad  line  has  been  built 
across  the  Arid  Region  from  east  to  west,  and  a short  north  and  south  line 
has  been  constructed  in  Colorado,  another  in  Utah,  and  several  in  California. 
But  an  exceedingly  small  portion  of  the  country  where  increase  of  water 
supply  has  been  noticed  has  been  reached  by  the  railroads,  and  but  a small 
fraction  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  lands  of  the  Arid  Region  have  been 
redeemed  by  irrigation.  This  fully  demonstrates  their  inadequacy.  In 
what  manner  rainfall  could  be  affected  through  the  cultivation  of  the  land, 
building  of  railroads,  telegraph  lines,  etc.,  has  not  been  shown.  Of  course 
such  hypotheses  obtain  credence  because  of  a lack  of  information  relating 
to  the  laws  which  govern  aqueous  precipitation.  The  motions  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis  and  about  the  sun;  the  unequal  heating  of  the  atmosphere,  which 
decreases  steadily  from  equator  to  poles ; the  great  ocean  currents  and  air 
currents ; the  distribution  of  land  and  water  over  the  earth ; the  mountain 
systems — these  are  all  grand  conditions  affecting  the  distribution  of  rainfall. 
Many  minor  conditions  also  prevail  in  topographic  reliefs,  and  surfaces 
favorable  to  the  absorption  or  reflection  of  the  sun’s  heat,  etc.,  etc.,  affecting 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  RELATIVE  TO  IRRIGABLE  LANDS.  91 


in  a slight  degree  the  general  results.  But  the  operations  of  man  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  are  so  trivial  that  the  conditions  which  they  produce 
are  of  minute  effect,  and  in  presence  of  the  grand  effects  of  nature  escape 
discernment.  Thus  the  alleged  causes  for  the  increase  of  rainfall  fail.  The 
rain  gauge  records  of  the  country  have  been  made  but  for  a brief  period, 
and  the  stations  have  been  widely  scattered,  so  that  no  very  definite  con- 
clusions can  be  drawn  from  them,  but  so  far  as  they  are  of  value  they  fail 
to  show  any  increase.  But  if  it  be  true  that  increase  of  the  water  supply 
is  due  to  increase  in  precipitation,  as  many  have  supposed,  the  fact  is  not 
cheering  to  the  agriculturist  of  the  Arid  Region.  The  permanent  changes 
of  nature  are  secular;  any  great  sudden  change  is  ephemeral,  and  usually 
such  changes  go  in  cycles,  and  the  opposite  or  compensating  conditions 
may  reasonably  be  anticipated. 

For  the  reasons  so  briefly  stated,  the  question  of  the  origin  and  perma- 
nence of  the  increase  of  the  water  supply  is  one  of  prime  importance  to 
the  people  of  the  country.  If  it  is  due  to  a temporary  increase  of  rainfall, 
or  any  briefly  cyclic  cause,  we  shall  have  to  expect  a speedy  return  to 
extreme  aridity,  in  which  case  a large  portion  of  the  agricultural  industries 
of  the  country  now  growing  up  would  be  destroyed. 

The  increase  is  abundantly  proved ; it  is  a matter  of  universal  expe- 
rience. The  observations  of  the  writer  thereon  have  been  widely  extended. 
Having  examined  as  far  as  possible  all  the  facts  seeming  to  bear  on  the 
subject,  the  theory  of  the  increase  of  rainfall  was  rejected,  and  another 
explanation  more  flattering  to  the  future  of  agriculture  accepted. 

The  amount  of  water  flowing  in  the  streams  is  but  a very  small  part 
of  that  which  falls  from  the  heavens.  The  greater  part  of  the  rainfall 
evaporates  from  the  surfaces  which  immediately  receive  it.  The  exceed- 
ingly dry  atmosphere  quickly  reabsorbs  the  moisture  occasionally  thrown 
down  by  a conjunction  of  favoring  conditions.  Any  changes  in  the  sur- 
faces which  receive  the  precipitation  favorable  to  the  rapid  gathering  of  the 
rain  into  rills  and  brooks  and  creeks,  while  taking  to  the  streams  but  a 
small  amount  of  that  precipitated,  will  greatly  increase  the  volume  of  the 
streams  themselves,  because  the  water  in  the  streams  bears  so  small  a pro- 
portion to  the  amount  discharged  from  the  clouds.  The  artificial  changes 


92  LANDS  OF  THE  AEID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


wrought  by  man  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  appear  to  be  adequate  to  the 
production  of  the  observed  effects.  The  destruction  of  forests,  which  has 
been  immense  in  this  country  for  the  past  fifteen  years;  the  cropping  of  the 
grasses,  and  the  treading  of  the  soil  by  cattle;  the  destruction  of  the  beaver 
dams,  causing  a drainage  of  the  ponds;  the  clearing  of  drift  wood  from 
stream  channels ; the  draining  of  upland  meadows,  and  many  other  slight 
modifications,  all  conspire  to  increase  the  accumulation  of  water  in  the 
streams,  and  all  this  is  added  to  the  supply  of  water  to  be  used  in  irrigation. 

Students  of  geology  and  physical  geography  have  long  been  aware 
of  these  facts.  It  is  well  known  that,  under  the  modifying  influences  of 
man,  the  streams  of  any  region  redeemed  from  the  wilderness  are  changed 
in  many  important  characteristics.  In  flood  times  their  volumes  are  excess- 
ively increased  and  their  powers  of  destruction  multiplied.  In  seasons  of 
drought,  some  streams  that  were  perennial  before  man  modified  the  surface 
of  the  country  become  entirely  dry ; the  smaller  navigable  streams  have 
their  periods  of  navigation  shortened,  and  the  great  rivers  run  so  low  at 
times  that  navigation  becomes  more  and  more  difficult  during  dry  seasons; 
in  multiplied  ways  these  effects  are  demonstrated.  While  in  the  main  the 
artificial  changes  wrought  by  man  on  the  surface  are  productive  of  bad 
results  in  humid  regions,  the  changes  are  chiefly  advantageous  to  man  in 
arid  regions  where  agriculture  is  dependent  upon  irrigation,  for  here  the 
result  is  to  increase  the  supply  of  water.  Mr.  Gilbert,  while  engaged  dur- 
ing the  past  season  in  studying  the  lands  of  Utah,  paid  especial  attention 
to  this  subject,  and  in  his  chapter  has  more  thoroughly  discussed  the  diverse 
special  methods  by  which  increase  in  the  flow  of  the  streams  is  caused  by 
the  changes  wrought  by  man  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Ilis  state- 
ment of  facts  is  clear,  and  his  conclusions  are  deemed  valid. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

A zone  of  mountains  and  high  plateaus  extends  from  the  northern 
nearly  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Utah  Territory.  The  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains constitute  the  northern  portion  of  this  zone,  the  High  Plateaus  the 
southern.  This  central  zone  has  a general  altitude  above  the  sea  of  from 
nine  to  eleven  thousand  feet.  Many  peaks  are  higher,  a few  reaching  an 
altitude  of  about  twelve  thousand  feet.  On  the  other  hand  many  canons 
and  valleys  have  been  excavated  by  the  running  waters  far  below  the 
general  level  thus  indicated. 

The  Uinta  Mountains  stretch  eastward  from  the  midst  of  the  Wasatch. 
This  region  is  a lofty  table  land  carrying  many  elevated  peaks  whose  sum- 
mits are  from  twelve  to  nearly  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  is  the  highest  portion  of  Utah,  and  among  its  peaks  are 
the  culminating  points. 

South  from  the  Uinta  Region,  and  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains,  another  elevated  district  extends  east-southeast  beyond 
the  borders  of  Utah.  This  table  land  is  cut  in  twain  by  two  great  gorges 
of  the  Green  River — the  Canon  of  Desolation  and  Gray  Canon.  The 
eastern  portion  is  called  East  Tavaputs  Plateau,  the  western  West  Tava- 
puts  Plateau. 

Between  the  Uinta  Mountains  and  the  Tavaputs  table  land  is  the  Uinta- 
White  Basin,  a low  synclinal  valley,  drained  by  the  Uinta  and  its  ramifica- 
tions on  the  west,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  White  River  on  the  east. 

The  district  of  country  lying  south  of  the  Tavaputs  table  land,  and 
east  and  south  of  the  High  Plateaus,  is  traversed  by  many  deep  canons. 

93 


94  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


This  is  the  Canon  Land  of  Utah.  In  its  midst  the  Green  and  Grand  unite 
to  form  the  Colorado.  The  Price  and  San  Rafael  are  tributary  to  the 
Green.  The  Fremont,  Escalante,  Paria,  Kanab,  and  Virgin  are  directly 
tributary  to  the  Colorado  from  the  north  and  west.  From  the  east  the  San 
Juan  flows  to  the  Colorado,  but  its  drainage  area  is  not  included  in  our 
present  discussion. 

West  of  the  lofty  zone  lie  low,  arid  valleys,  interrupted  by  short  and 
abrupt  ranges  of  mountains  whose  naked  cliffs  and  desolate  peaks  overlook 
the  still  more  desolate  valle}^s.  These  short  longitudinal  ranges  are  but  a 
part  of  the  Basin  Ranges,  a mountain  system  extending  through  Nevada 
and  northward  into  Idaho  and  Oregon.  That  portion  of  the  Basin  Range 
System  which  lies  in  Utah,  and  which  we  now  have  under  consideration,  is 
naturally  divided  into  two  parts,  the  northern  embracing  the  drainage  area 
of  Great  Salt  Lake,  the  southern  embracing  the  drainage  area  of  Sevier 
Lake,  giving  the  Great  Salt  Lake  District  and  the  Sevier  Lake  District. 

To  recapitulate,  the  grand  districts  into  which  Utah  is  naturally 
divided  are  as  follows:  The  Wasatch  Mountains  and  the  High  Plateaus, 
constituting  the  lofty  zone  above  mentioned ; the  Uinta  Mountains,  the 
Tavaputs  table  lands,  the  Uinta-White  Basin,  the  Canon  Lands,  the  Sevier 
Lake  Basin,  and  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin,  the  two  latter  being  fragments 
of  the  great  Basin  Range  Province. 


The  eastern  portion  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  is  drained  by  the  Colo- 
rado River  by  the  aid  of  a number  of  important  tributaries.  The  western 
portion  is  drained  by  streams  that,  heading  in  the  mountains  and  high 
plateaus  of  the  central  portion,  find  their  way  by  many  meanderings  into 
the  salt  lakes  and  desert  sands  to  the  westward. 

Considered  with  reference  to  its  drainage,  Utah  may  thus  be  divided 
into  two  parts — the  Colorado  drainage  area  and  the  Desert  drainage-  area ; 
the  former  is  about  two-fifths,  the  latter  three-fifths  of  the  area  of  the 
territory. 

All  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  lie  west  of  the  drainage  crest ; apart  of 
the  High  Plateaus  are  drained  to  the  Colorado,  a part  to  the  deserts.  This 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


95 


great  water  divide,  commencing  north  of  the  Pine  Valley  Mountains  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  territory,  runs  north  of  the  Colob  Plateau  and 
enters  the  district  of  the  High  Plateaus.  It  first  runs  eastward  along  the 
crest  or  brink  of  the  Pink  Cliffs  that  bound  the  Markagunt  and  Paunsagunt 
Plateaus,  and  then  north  and  east  in  many  meandering  ways,  now  throwing 
a plateau  into  the  western  drainage,  and  now  another  into  the  eastern,  until 
it  reaches  the  western  extremity  of  the  Tavaputs  table  lands.  Thence  it 
runs  around  the  western  end  of  the  Uinta  Valley,  throwing  the  Tavaputs 
table  lands,  the  Uinta  Valley,  and  Uinta  Mountains  into  the  Colorado 
drainage,  and  the  Wasatch  Mountains  into  the  Desert  drainage. 

These  two  regions  are  highly  differentiated  in  orographic  structure 
and  other  geological  characteristics.  The  sedimentary  formations  of  the 
eastern  region  are  in  large  part  of  Cenozoic  and  Mesozoic  age,  though 
Paleozoic  rocks  appear  in  some  localities.  The  Cenozoic  and  Mesozoic 
formations  are  largely  composed  of  incoherent  sands  and  shales  with  inter- 
calated beds  of  indurated  sandstone  and  limestone.  The  great  geological 
displacements  are  chiefly  by  faults  and  monoclinal  flexures,  by  which  the 
whole  country  has  been  broken  up  into  many  broad  blocks,  so  that  the 
strata  are  horizontal  or  but  slightly  inclined,  except  along  the  zones  of 
displacement  by  which  the  several  blocks  are  bounded.  Here  the  strata, 
when  not  faulted,  are  abruptly  flexed,. and  the  rocks  dip  at  high  angles. 

The  Uinta  Mountains  are  storm  carved  from  an  immense  uplifted 
block.  The  mountains  of  the  Canon  Lands  are  isolated  and  volcanic.  In 
the  High  Plateaus  sedimentary  beds  are  covered  by  vast  sheets  of  lava. 
The  sedimentary  beds  exposed  in  the  mountains  of  the  Desert  region  are 
of  Paleozoic  age,  and  many  crystalline  schists  appear,  while  the  sedimentary 
beds  exposed  in  the  valleys  are  Post-Tertiary.  The  crystalline  schists  and 
ancient  sedimentaries  of  the  mountains  are  often  extensive  masses  of  extra- 
vasated  rocks.  The  prevailing  type  of  orographic  structure  is  that  of 
monoclinal  ridges  of  displacement.  Blocks  of  strata  have  been  turned  up 
so  as  to  incline  at  various  angles,  and  from  their  upturned  edges  the  mount- 
ains have  been  carved.  But  these  monoclinal  ridges  are  much  complicated 
by  mountain  masses  having  an  eruptive  origin. 

In  the  eastern  districts  the  materials  denuded  from  the  mountains  and 


96  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


plateaus  have  been  carried  to  the  sea,  but  in  the  western  districts  the 
materials  carried  from  the  mountains  are  deposited  in  the  adjacent  valleys, 
so  that  while  the  mountains  are  composed  of  rocks  of  great  age,  the  rocks 
of  the  valleys  are  of  recent  origin.  In  that  geological  era  known  as  the 
Glacial  epoch  the  waters  of  a great  lake  spread  over  these  valleys,  and  the 
mountains  stood  as  islands  in  the  midst  of  a fresh-water  sea.  For  the  history 
of  this  lake  we  are  indebted  to  the  researches  of  Mr.  Gilbert.  It  had  its 
outlet  to  the  north  by  way  of  the  Shoshoni  River  and  the  Columbia  to 
the  North  Pacific.  These  later  beds  of  the  valleys  are  in  part  the  sedi- 
ments of  Lake  Bonneville,  the  great  lake  above  mentioned,  and  in  part 
they  are  subaerial  gravels  and  sands. 

The  Wasatch  system  of  mountains  is  composed  of  abrupt  ranges 
crowned  with  sharp  peaks.  The  several  minor  ranges  and  groups  of 
peaks  into  which  it  is  broken  are  separated  only  in  part  by  structural 
differences,  since  ridges  with  homogeneous  structure  are  severed  by  trans- 
verse valleys.  The  drainage  of  the  whole  area  occupied  by  the  Wasatch 
Mountains  is  westward  to  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  The  streams  that  head  in 
the  western  end  of  the  Uinta  Mountains  and  West  Tavaputs  Plateau  cut 
through  the  Wasatch  Mountains. 

Great  Salt  Lake  and  its  upper  tributary,  Utah  Lake,  exist  by  virtue 
of  the  presence  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  for  the  mountains  wring  from 
the  clouds  the  waters  with  which  the  lakes  are  supplied. 

Walled  by  high  ridges  and  peaks,  many  elevated  valleys  are  found. 
In  the  midsummer  months  these  valleys  are  favored  with  a pleasant, 
invigorating  climate.  Occasionally  showers  of  rain  fall.  Vegetation  is 
vigorous.  The  distant  mountain  slopes  bear  forests  of  spruce,  pine,  and 
fir;  the  broken  foot  hills  are  often  covered  by  low,  ragged  pinon  pines 
and  cedars ; and  the  flood  plains  of  the  streams  are  natural  meadows. 
About  the  springs  and  streamlets  groves  of  aspen  stand,  and  the  streams 
are  bordered  with  willows,  box  elders,  and  cottonwoods  Now  and  then 
a midsummer  storm  comes,  bringing  hail,  and  even  snow.  When  the 
short  summer  ends,  the  aspen  and  box  elder  foliage  turns  to  gold  flecked 


THE  LANDS  OF.  UTAH. 


97 


with  scarlet;  the  willows  to  crimson  and  russet;  the  meadows  are 
quickly  sered,  and  soon  the  autumn  verdure  presents  only  the  somber 
tints  of  the  evergreens;  early  snows  fall,  and  the  whole  land  is  soon 
covered  with  a white  mantle,  except  that  here  and  there  bleak  hills  and 
rugged  peaks  are  swept  bare  by  the  winds.  The  brief,  beautiful  summer 
is  followed  by  a long,  dreary  winter,  and  during  this  winter  of  snowfall 
are  accumulated  the  waters  that  are  to  be  used  in  fertilizing  the  valleys 
away  below  in  the  border  region  between  the  mountains  and  the  desert 
basins. 

From  the  Wasatch  on  the  north  to  the  Colob  on  the  south  are  elevated 
tables,  in  general  bounded  by  bold,  precipitous  escarpments.  The  lands 
above  are  highly  and  sharply  differentiated  from  the  lands  below  in  climate, 
vegetation,  soil,  and  other  physical  characters.  These  high  plateaus  are 
covered  with  sheets  and  beds  of  lava,  and  over  the  lava  sheets  are  scat- 
tered many  volcanic  cinder  cones.  The  higher  plateaus  bear  heavy  forests 
of  evergreens,  and  scattered  through  the  forests  are  many  little  valleys  or 
meadow  glades.  The  gnarled,  somber  forests  are  often  beset  with  fallen 
timber  and  a vigorous  second  growth,  forming  together  a dead  and  living 
tangle  difficult  to  penetrate.  But  often  the  forest  aisles  are  open  from 
glade  to  glade,  or  from  border  cliff  to  border  cliff.  In  the  midst  of  the 
glades  are  many  beautiful  lakelets,  and  from  the  cliffs  that  bound  the 
plateaus  on  every  hand  the  waters  break  out  in  innumerable  springs. 

Here,  also,  a brief  summer  is  followed  by  a long  winter,  and  through 
its  dreary  days  the  snow  is  gathered  which  fills  the  lakelets  above  and 
feeds  the  springs  along  the  bordering  cliffs.  The  springs  of  the  cliffs  are 
the  fountains  of  the  rivers  that  are  to  fertilize  the  valleys  lying  to  the 
east,  south,  and  west. 

The  Uinta  Mountains  constitute  an  east  and  west  range.  From  a single 
great  uplift,  nearly  200  miles  long  and  from  40  to  50  miles  wide,  valleys 
and  canons  have  been  carved  by  rains  and  rivers,  and  table  lands  and 
peaks  have  been  left  embossed  on  the  surface.  Along  its  middle  belt  from 
east  to  west  the  peaks  are  scattered  in  great  confusion,  but  in  general  the 
highest  peaks  are  near  the  center  of  the  range.  The  general  elevation 
descends  abruptly  both  on  the  north  and  south  margins  of  the  uplift,  and 
13  A E 


98  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


at  the  crest  of  each  abrupt  descent  there  are  many  limestone  ridges  and 
crags.  Between  these  ridges  and  crags  that  stand  along  the  bordering 
crests,  and  the  peaks  that  stand  along  the  meandering  watershed,  there  are 
broad  tables,  some  times  covered  with  forests,  sometimes  only  with  grass. 

This  is  a third  region  of  short  summers  and  long  winters,  where  the 
waters  are  collected  to  fertilize  the  valleys  to  the  north  and  south. 

Away  to  the  southward  are  the  twin  plateaus,  East  and  West  Tavaputs, 
severed  by  the  Green  River.  These  plateaus  culminate  at  the  Brown 
Cliffs,  where  bold  escarpments  are  presented  southward. 

Outlying  the  Brown  Cliffs  are  the  Book  Cliffs.  These,  also,  are 
escarpments  of  naked  rock,  with,  many  salient  and  reentrant  angles  and 
outlying  buttes.  The  beds  of  which  they  are  composed  are  shales  and 
sandstones  of  many  shades  of  blue,  gray,  and  buff.  In  the  distance,  and 
softly  blended  by  atmospheric  haze,  the  towering  walls  have  an  azure  hue. 
Everywhere  they  are  elaborately  water  carved,  and  the  bold  battlements 
above  are  buttressed  with  sculptured  hills.  In  1869,  when  the  writer  first 
saw  this  great  escarpment,  he  gave  it  the  name  of  the  Azure  Cliffs,  but 
an  earlier  traveler,  passing  by  another  route  across  the  country,  had  seen 
them  in  the  distance,  and,  seizing  another  characteristic  feature,  had  called 
them  the  Book  Mountains.  Gunnison  saw,  however,  not  a range  of  mount- 
ains, but  the  escarped  edge  of  a plateau,  and  this  escarpment  we  now  call 
the  Book  Cliffs.  From  the  Brown  Cliffs  northward  these  plateaus  dip 
gently  north  to  the  Uinta- White  Basin.  From  the  very  crest  of  the  Brown 
Cliffs  the  drainage  is  northward. 

This  is  a fourth  region  of  short  summers  and  long  winters,  where  the 
moisture  is  collected  to  fertilize  adjacent  lands  ; but  the  altitude  is  not  great 
enough  nor  the  area  large  enough  to  accumulate  a large  supply  of  water, 
and  the  amount  furnished  by  the  Tavaputs  Plateaus  is  comparatively  small. 

Such  are  the  lofty  regions  of  Utah  that  furnish  water  to  irrigate  the 
lowlands. 

TIMBER. 

In  these  elevated  districts  is  found  all  the  timber  of  commercial  value. 
This  is  well  shown  on  the  map.  The  map  also  exhibits  the  fact  that  many 
portions  of  the  elevated  districts  are  devoid  of  timber,  it  having  been 


THE  LANDS  OF.  UTAH. 


99 


destroyed  by  fire,  as  explained  in  a former  chapter.  Doubtless,  if  fires 
could  be  prevented,  the  treeless  areas  would  in  due  time  be  again  covered 
with  forests,  but  in  such  a climate  forest  growth  is  slow.  At  present,  the 
treeless  areas  will  afford  valuable  summer  pasturage  for  cattle,  and  doubtless 
such  pasturage  would  be  advantageous  to  the  growth  of  new  forests,  by 
keeping  down  the  grasses  in  which  in  part  the  fires  spread.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that,  to  a great  extent,  the  fires  which  destroy  the  forests  are  set 
by  Indians  while  on  their  hunting  excursions.  The  removal  of  the  Indians 
from  the  country  will  further  protect  the  forests  Eventually,  the  better 
class  of  timber  lands  will  fall  into  the  hands  of  individual  owners,  who 
will  be  interested  in  protecting  their  property  from  devastation  by  this 
fierce  element.  By  all  of  these  means  the  standing  timber  will  be  preserved 
for  economic  uses;  but  it  will  be  a long  time  before  complete  immunity 
from  fires  will  be  secured. 

The  demand  for  lumber  will  never  be  very  great.  A variety  of  causes 
conspire  to  this  end.  The  adjacent  country  will  sustain  but  a small  agri- 
cultural population,  because  the  irrigable  lands  are  of  limited  extent.  The 
people  of  the  lowlands  will  eventually  supply  themselves  with  fuel  by  culti- 
vating timber  along  the  water  courses  and  by  using  the  coal  so  abundant  in 
some  portions  of  Utah.  The  lumber  will  never  be  carried  to  a foreign 
market  because  of  the  expense  of  transportation:  first,  it  will  be  expensive 
to  get  it  down  from  the  highlands  to  the  lowlands,  and,  second,  there  are 
no  navigable  streams  by  which  lumber  may  be  cheaply  transported  from 
the  -country.  In  general,  the  lumber  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  cannot  suc- 
cessfully compete  for  a permanent  place  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  But 
there  will  be  a demand  for  lumber  for  building  and  fencing  purposes  in  the 
valleys,  and  for  mining  purposes  in  the  mountains. 

If  the  timber  region  can  be  protected  from  fire,  the  supply  of  timber 
will  equal  the  demand. 

From  the  brief  description  given  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  timber 
region  will  never  support  agriculture.  Much  of  it  is  mountainous  and 
inhospitable,  and  the  climate  is  cold.  The  timber  region  is  ever  to  be  such; 
mining  industries  will  slightly  encroach  on  it  on  the  one  hand,  and 
pasturage  industries  on  the  other,  but  lumbermen  will  control  the  country, 


100  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  forests  of  these  upper  regions  are  monotonous,  as  the  variety  of 
tree  life  is  very  small.  All  of  the  timber  trees  proper  are  coniferous,  and 
belong  to  the  pine,  fir,  and  juniper  families.  The  pine  of  chief  value  is 
Pinus  ponderosa,  locally  distinguished  as  the  “Long  leaved  pine”;  the 
wood  is  very  heavy  and  coarse  grained,  but  is  suitable  for  the  ruder 
building  and  mining  purposes.  It  is  usually  found  on  the  slopes  between 
eight  and  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  attains  a large 
size,  and  is  a stately  tree,  contrasting  grandly  with  the  darker  and  smaller 
firs  that  usually  keep  it  company. 

Pinus  aristcita  is  of  no  commercial  value,  as  it  is  much  branched  and 
spreading  with  limbs  near  the  base ; it  grows  on  the  crags  at  an  altitude 
of  from  nine  to  eleven  thousand  feet. 

Pinus  flexilis  grows  at  the  same  altitude  as  the  last  mentioned,  and 
often  shows  a similar  habit  of  growth.  On  the  southern  plateaus  it  is  less 
branched  and  has  a tolerably  straight  trunk,  but  it  is  too  small  and  scarce 
to  be  important  as  timber.  It  is  highly  resinous,  and  is  called  “ Pitch 
pine.” 

Pinus  monticola,  or  Sugar  pine,  is  found  on  the  southern  plateaus,  but 
is  not  abundant,  and  rarely  attains  milling  size. 

Pinus  edidis  is  the  well  known  “Pinon  pine”.  It  covers  the  foot  hills 
and  less  elevated  slopes  adjacent  to  the  river  valleys.  The  tree  is  low, 
diffusely  branched  and  scrubby,  and  is  of  no  use  for  lumber ; but  the  wood 
is  well  supplied  with  resin  and  makes  an  excellent  fuel,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  extensively  used  in  consequence  of  its  accessibility. 

There  are  three  valuable  species  of  Abies,  namely:  A.  Douglasii,  A. 
concolor,  and  A.  Pnyelmanni.  Abies  Douglasii,  or  Douglas’  spruce,  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  eastern  spruce,  A.  Canadensis , but  it  is  a finer  tree, 
and  the  wood  is  much  superior.  Though  rather  light,  it  is  tough  and 
exceedingly  durable.  The  heart  wood  is  red,  from  which  circumstance 
lumbermen  distinguish  it  as  the  “Red  pine”. , In  building  it  is  used  for  all 
the  heavier  parts,  as  frames,  joists,  rafters,  etc.,  and  it  makes  excellent 
flooring.  Its  value  is  still  further  enhanced  from  the  fact  that  it  occupies  a 
belt  of  from  seven  to  nine  thousand  feet  altitude,  and  thus  is  easily 
obtained.  It  may  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  cones,  the  bracts  of 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


101 


which  are  trifurcate,  sharp,  pointed,  and  conspicuously  exsertea,  and  they 
are  unlike  those  of  any  other  species. 

Abies  concolor , known  in  Utah  as  the  “Black  balsam”,  grows  at  about 
the  same  altitude  as  the  last  mentioned  species,  and  though  rather  cross- 
grained  makes  good  lumber,  being  quite  durable  and  strong.  From  its 
silvery  foliage,  the  leaves  being  glaucous  on  both  sides,  this  tree  is  known 
to  tourists  as  the  “White  silver  fir”.  Lumbermen  sometimes  call  it  the 
“Black  gum”,  the  wood  being  very  dark  colored. 

Abies  Eugelmanni,  or  Engelmann’s  spruce,  occupies  the  highest  eleva- 
tions, and  constitutes  the  only  timber  above  11,000  feet  in  altitude.  Above 
11,500  feet  it  is  reduced  to  a dwarf.  On  the  terraces  of  the  high  plateaus, 
at  about  10,000  feet  altitude,  it  appears  to  flourish  best,  and  here  it  becomes 
a large,  beautiful  tree.  The  leaves  are  needle  shaped,  and  thus  differ  from 
both  the  preceding  species.  The  trunks  are  straight  and  free  from  limbs 
or  knots,  making  fine  saw  logs.  The  wood  is  white  and  soft,  but  fine 
grained  and  durable,  and  being  easily  worked  is  held  in  high  esteem  for  all 
the  lighter  uses,  such  as  sash,  doors,  etc  Its  place  in  the  lumber  industries 
of  Utah  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  “White  pine”  ( Pinus  Strobus ) in 
the  east.  Lumbermen  usually  call  it  “White  pine”.  Because  of  the 
altitude  of  its  habitat  it  is  difficult  to  obtain,  yet  it  is  systematically  sought, 
and  large  amounts  are  yearly  manufactured  into  lumber ; it  also  makes 
good  shingles. 

Abies  Menziesii , or  Menzies’s  spruce,  usually  called  “Spruce”  by 
lumbermen  of  the  country,  is  botanically  very  similar  to  the  species  last 
described,  but  the  cones  are  larger  and  the  leaves  sharper  pointed.  It 
bears  a large  quantity  of  cones,  which  are  generally  aggregated  near  the 
top,  obscuring  the  foliage,  and  giving  the  trees  a peculiar  tawny  appear- 
ance. The  wood  is  light,  white,  and  fine  grained,  and  would  rival  that  of 
the  last  named  species  but  for  the  fact  that  the  trunk  has  a number  of 
slight  curves,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  good  saw  logs  of  sufficient 
length  from  it.  Its  habitat  is  along  the  canons  from  seven  to  nine  thou- 
sand feet  altitude,  and  seems  to  end  about  where  A.  Engelmanni  begins. 
It  is,  however,  a smaller  tree,  and  less  abundant. 

Abies  subalpina  is  of  little  value  as  a timber  tree ; the  wood  is 


102  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


soft  and  spongy,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  locally  known  as 
“Pumpkin  pine”,  but  the  more  appropriate  name  of  “White  balsam”  is 
also  applied  to  distinguish  it  from  A.  concolor,  which  is  called  “Black 
balsam”.  This  species  grows  high  up  on  the  mountains  and  plateaus, 
generally  from  nine  to  eleven  thousand  feet.  It  is  very  tall,  often  attain- 
ing a height  of  80  or  90  feet.  Its  trunk  is  straight  and  limbless  for  a great 
distance.  This  species  has  been  but  little  known  to  botanists  heretofore, 
from  the  fact  that  it  has  been  confounded  with  A.  grandis,  but  Mr.  Engel- 
mann  decides,  from  specimens  collected  by  Mr.  L.  F.  Ward,  that  it  must  be 
considered  as  a new  species. 

Abies  amabilis  and  Abies  grandis , spruces  resembling  the  “White  balsam” 
in  their  general  appearance,  occur  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  but  are  not 
abundant. 

Jimiperus  Californicus , var.  UtaJiensis,  or  White  cedar,  is  very  abun- 
dant over  the  foot  hills  and  lower  mountain  slopes,  and,  like  the  piilon  pine, 
is  much  used  for  fire  wood.  It  has  also  the  characteristic  durability  of  the 
jumpers,  and  makes  excellent  fence  posts.  It  grows  low,  is  diffusely 
branched,  and  is  valueless  for  milling  purposes. 

Juniperus  Virginiana,  or  Red  cedar,  is  also  found  in  this  region.  Its 
habitat  is  near  the  streams  and  at  moderate  altitudes.  It  is  said  to  lack 
the  durable  qualities  for  which  it  is  noted  at  the  east,  and  which  seem  to  be 
transferred  to  the  other  species. 

Popidus  angustifolia,  or  Cottonwood,  is  the  chief  representative  of  the 
poplar  family  in  this  region.  The  people  of  the  country  distinguish  two 
varieties  or  species,  the  Black  cottonwood  and  Yellow  cottonwood.  The 
former  is  said  to  be  useless  for  lumber,  while  the  latter  has  some  slight 
value.  It  forms  no  part  of  the  forest  proper,  but  fringes  the  lower  reaches 
of  the  streams,  rarely  occurring  higher  in  altitude  than  6,000  feet.  Its  rapid 
growth  and  its  proximity  to  the  irrigable  lands  make  it  valuable  for  fuel, 
although  it  is  not  of  superior  quality. 

Populus  monilifera,  the  Cottonwood  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  grows  with 
the  above  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Territory,  and  has  about  the  same 
value. 

Popidus  trenmloides,  or  Aspen,  is  found  about  the  moist  places  on  the 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


103 


mountain  sides,  and  often  borders  the  glades  of  the  plateaus.  The  long- 
poles  which  it  furnishes  are  sometimes  used  for  fencing  purposes ; it  makes 
a fair  fuel ; the  quantity  found  is  small. 

Acer  grandidentata,  a species  of  Maple,  abounds  at  the  north  as  a bush, 
and  rare  individuals  attain  the  rank  of  small  trees.  Its  wood  is  highly  prized 
for  the  repair  of  machinery,  but  is  too  scarce  to  be  of  great  service. 

Negundo  acer aides,  or  Box  elder,  is  found  along  the  water  courses  in 
many  places.  Sometimes  along  the  larger  streams  it  attains  a height  of  25 
or  30  feet.  It  makes  a good  fuel,  but  is  found  in  such  small  quantities  as 
to  be  scarcely  worthy  of  mention. 

Quercus  undulata,  or  White  oak,  is  very  abundant  as  a bush,  and  some- 
times attains  a diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches.  It  is  too  rare  as  a tree  to 
deserve  more  than  mere  mention. 

Betula  occidentals,  a species  of  Birch,  grows  about  the  upland  springs 
and  creeks.  Its  habit  is  bushlike,  but  it  often  has  a height  of  20  feet,  and 
it  makes  a tolerable  fuel 

The  Hackberry  ( Celtis  occidentals)  and  two  species  of  Ash  ( Fraxinus 
coriacea  and  F.  anomald)  grow  as  small  trees,  but  are  exceedingly  rare. 

The  above  is  a nearly  complete  list  of  the  forest  trees  of  Utah.  The 
number  of  species  is  very  small ; aridity  on  the  one  hand,  and  cold  on  the 
other,  successfully  repel  the  deciduous  trees.  The  oak,  hickory,  ash,  etc., 
necessary  to  such  a variety  of  industries,  especially  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  machinery,  must  all  be  imported  from  more  humid  regions. 
The  coniferous  trees,  growing  high  among  the  rocks  of  the  upper  regions 
and  beaten  by  the  cold  storms  of  a long  winter,  are  ragged  and  gnarled,  and 
the  lumber  they  afford  is  not  of  the  finest  quality ; and  the  finishing  lumber 
for  architectural  purposes  and  furniture  must  also  be  imported  from  more 
humid  regions. 

IRRIGABLE  AND  PASTURE  LANDS. 

UINTA-WHITE  BASIN. 

The  Uinta- White  Valley  is  a deep  basin  inclosed  by  the  Uinta  Moun- 
tains on  the  north  and  the  Tavaputs  highlands  on  the  south.  Eastward  the 
basin  extends  beyond  the  limits  of  Utah  ; westward  the  Uinta  Mountains 


104  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  West  Tavaputs  Plateau  nearly  inclose  the  head  of  the  Uinta  Valley, 
but  the  space  between  is  filled  with  a section  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains. 
From  the  north,  west,  and  south  the  Uinta  Valley  inclines  gently  toward 
the  Duchesne  River.  Many  streams  come  down  from  the  north  and  from 
the  south.  In  the  midst  of  the  valley  there  are  some  small  stretches  of 
bad  lands. 

Along  the  lower  part  of  the  Uinta  and  the  Duchesne,  and  the  lower 
courses  of  nearly  all  the  minor  streams,  large  tracts  of  arable  land  are  found, 
and  from  these  good  selections  can  be  made,  sufficient  to  occupy  in  their 
service  all  the  water  of  the  Uinta  and  its  numerous  branches.  The  agri- 
cultural portion  of  the  valley  is  sufficiently  low  to  have  a genial  climate, 
and  all  the  crops  of  the  northern  States  can  be  cultivated  successfully. 

Stretching  back  on  every  hand  from  the  irrigable  districts,  the  little 
hills,  valleys,  and  slopes  are  covered  with  grasses,  which  are  found  more  and 
more  luxuriant  in  ascending  the  plateaus  and  mountains,  until  the  peaks  are 
reached,  and  these  are  naked. 

On  the  north  of  the  Uinta,  and  still  west  of  the  Green,  the  basin  is 
drained  by  some  small  streams,  the  chief  of  which  is  Ashley  Fork.  Except 
near  the  lower  course  of  Ashley  Fork,  this  section  of  country  is  exceedingly 
broken ; the  bad  lands  and  hogbacks  are  severed  by  deep,  precipitous 
canons. 

From  the  east  the  White  River  enters  the  Green.  Some  miles  up  the 
White,  a canon  is  reached,  and  the  country  on  either  hand,  stretching  back 
for  a long  distance,  is  composed  of  rugged  barren  lands.  But,  between  the 
highlands  and  the  Green,  selections  of  good  land  can  be  made,  and  the 
waters  of  the  White  can  be  used  to  serve  them.  From  the  White,  south  to 
the  East  Tavaputs  Plateau,  the  grass  lands  steadily  increase  in  value  to  the 
summit  of  the  Brown  Cliffs.  Many  good  springs  are  found  in  this  region, 
and  eventually  this  will  be  a favorite  district  for  pasturage  farms. 

Fine  pasturage  farms  may  be  made  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Yampa  Plateau,  with  summer  pasturage  above  and  winter  pasturage  below. 
Altogether,  the  Uinta- White  Basin  is  one  of  the  favored  districts  of  the 
west,  with  great  numbers  of  cool  springs  issuing  from  the  mountains  and 
hills;  many  beautiful  streams  of  clear,  cold  water;  a large  amount  of 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


105 


arable  land  from  which  irrigable  tracts  may  be  selected ; an  abundance  of 
fuel  in  the  pinon  pines  and  cedars  of  the  foot  hills ; and  building  timber 
farther  back  on  the  mountains  and  plateaus. 

The  whole  amount  of  irrigable  land  is  estimated  at  280,320  acres. 

THE  CANON  LANDS. 

South  of  the  Tavaputs  highlands,  and  east  and  south  of  the  High 
Plateaus,  the  Canon  Lands  of  Utah  are  found.  The  lower  course  of  the 
Grand,  the  lower  course  of  the  Green,  and  a large  section  of  the  Colorado 
cuts  through  them,  and  the  streams  that  head  in  the  High  Plateaus  run 
across  them.  All  the  rivers,  all  the  creeks,  all  the  brooks,  run  in  deep 
gorges — narrow,  winding  canons,  with  their  floors  far  below  the  general 
surface  of  the  country.  Many  long  lines  of  cliffs  are  found  separating 
higher  from  lower  districts.  The  hills  are  bad  lands  and  alcove  lands. 

The  Sierra  la  Sal  and  Henry  Mountains  are  great  masses  of  lava, 
wrapped  in  sedimentary  beds,  which  are  cut  with  many  dikes.  South  of 
the  High  Plateaus  great  numbers  of  cinder  cones  are  found. 

On  the  Grand  River  there  are  some  patches  of  land  which  can  be 
served  by  the  waters  of  that  river.  On  the  Green,  in  what  is  known  as 
Gunnison  Valley,  patches  of  good  land  can  be  selected  and  redeemed  by 
the  waters  of  that  river. 

Castle  Valley  is  abruptly  walled  on  the  west,  north,  and  northeast  by 
towering  cliffs.  East  of  its  southern  portion  a region  of  towers,  buttes, 
crags,  and  rocklands  is  found,  known  as  the  San  Rafael  Swell.  In  this 
valley  there  is  a large  amount  of  good  land,  and  the  numerous  streams 
which  run  across  it  can  all  be  used  in  irrigation.  Farther  south,  on  the 
Fremont,  Escalante,  and  Paria,  some  small  tracts  of  irrigable  land  are 
found,  and  on  the  Kanab  and  Virgin  there  are  limited  areas  which  can  be 
used  for  agricultural  purposes.  But  all  that  portion  of  the  canon  country 
south  of  Castle  Valley  and  westward  to  the  Beaver  Dam  Mountains  is 
exceedingly  desolate;  naked  rocks  are  found,  refusing  footing  even  to 
dwarfed  cedars  and  pinon  pines ; the  springs  are  infrequent  and  yield  no 
bountiful  supply  of  water;  its  patches  of  grass  land  are  widely  scattered,  and 
it  has  but  little  value  for  agricultural  purposes. 

14  A R 


106  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

A broad  belt  of  coal  land  extends  along  the  base  of  the  cliffs  from  the 
Tavaputs  Plateau  on  the  northeast  to  the  Colob  Plateau  on  the  southwest. 
At  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  which  separate  the  lowlands  from  the  highlands, 
many  pasturage  farms  may  be  made;  the  grass  of  the  lowlands  can  be 
used  in  the  winter,  and  that  of  the  highlands  in  summer,  and  everywhere 
good  springs  of  water  may  be  found. 

The  extent  of  the  irrigable  lands  in  this  district  is  estimated  at  213,440 
acres. 

THE  SEVIER  LAKE  DISTRICT. 

This  district  embraces  all  the  country  drained  by  the  waters  which 
flow  into  the  Sevier  Lake,  and  the  areas  drained  by  many  small  streams 
which  are  quickly  lost  in  the  desert.  The  greater  part  of  the  irrigable 
land  lies  in  the  long,  narrow  valleys  walled  by  the  plateaus,  especially 
along  the  Sevier,  Otter  Creek,  and  the  San  Pete.  The  arable  lands  greatly 
exceed  the  irrigable,  and  good  selections  may  be  made.  Most  of  the 
irrigable  lands  are  already  occupied  by  farmers,  and  the  waters  are  used 
in  their  service.  In  the  valleys  among  the  high  plateaus,  and  along  their 
western  border,  the  grasses  are  good,  and  many  pasturage  farms  may  be 
selected,  and  the  springs  and  little  streams  that  come  from  the  plateau  cliffs 
will  afford  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  The  summits  of  the  plateaus 
will  afford  an  abundant  summer  pasturage. 

Westward  among  the  Basin  Ranges  feeble  and  infrequent  springs  are 
found ; there  is  little  timber  of  value,  but  the  lower  mountains  and  foot 
hills  have  cedars  and  pinon  pines  that  would  be  valuable  for  fuel  if  nearer 
to  habitations.  The  cedar  and  pinon  hills  bear  scant  grasses.  The  valleys 
are  sometimes  covered  with  sage,  sometimes  with  grease  wood,  sometimes 
quite  naked. 

The  amount  of  irrigable  land  in  this  district  is  estimated  at  101,700 
acres. 

THE  GREAT  SALT  LAKE  DISTRICT. 

This  district  has  already  become  famous  in  the  history  of  western 
agriculture,  for  here  the  Latter  Day  Saints  first  made  “a  home  in  the 
valleys  among  the  mountains”. 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


107 


The  rivers  and  creeks  bring  the  waters  down  from  the  Wasatch 
Mountains  on  the  east.  The  high  valleys  among  the  mountains  have  to 
some  extent  been  cultivated,  and  will  hereafter  be  used  more  than  at  present 
for  meadow  purposes.  In  general  the  people  have  selected  their  lands  low 
down,  in  order  to  obtain  a more  genial  climate.  Yet  the  irrigable  lands  are 
not  very  far  from  the  mountains,  as  a glance  at  the  map  will  reveal.  Utah 
Lake  constitutes  a fine  natural  reservoir  and  discharges  its  waters  into  Salt 
Lake  by  the  Jordap,  and  from  its  channel  the  waters  may  be  conducted 
over  a large  area  of  country.  The  waters  of  the  Weber  and  Bear  Rivers, 
now  flowing  idly  into  the  lake,  will  soon  be  spread  over  extensive  valleys, 
and  the  area  of  agricultural  lands  be  greatly  increased.  Westward  the 
influence  of  the  mountains  in  the  precipitation  of  moisture  is  soon  lost,  and 
beyond  the  lake  an  irreclaimable  desert  is  found. 

Near  to  the  mountains  the  grass  lands  are  fair  but  they  have  been 
overpastured  and  greatly  injured.  Out  among  the  Basin  Ranges  little  grass 
land  of  value  is  found. 

The  amount  of  irrigable  land  in  this  district  is  estimated  at  837,660 
acres. 

The  lofty  zone  of  mountains  and  table  lands  with  arms  stretching 
eastward,  with  its  culminating  points  among  summer  frosts  and  winter 
storms,  is  the  central  region  about  which  the  human  interests  of  the  country 
gather.  The  timber,  the  water,  the  agricultural  lands,  the  pasturage  lands, 
to  a large  extent  the  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  to  some  extent  the  silver 
mines,  are  all  found  in  these  higher  regions  or  clinging  closely  to  them. 

GRASSES. 

While  the  forests  present  but  a few  species  of  trees,  the  pasturage  lands 
present  a great  variety  of  grasses.  Between  fifty  and  sixty  species  have 
been  collected  by  parties  connected  with  the  survey  under  the  direction  of 
the  writer,  and  these  are  distributed  among  twenty-six  or  twenty-seven 
genera.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the  mountains  or  highlands,  and  are  rich 
and  sweet.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  bunch  grasses.  The  spaces  by  which 
the  bunches  are  separated  are  bare  or  occupied  with  weeds  and  shrubs. 
This  is  often  the  case  on  the  mountains  and  high  plateaus.  A continuous 


108  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


turf  is  never  seen.  Where  a sward  is  seen  in  moist  places,  about  springs 
and  in  glades,  the  verdure  consists  in  chief  part  of  other  plants,  sedges  and 
reeds. 

Of  the  bunch  grasses  the  Poas  are  by  far  the  most  abundant.  Of  this 
genus  nine  species  were  obtained,  but  this  gives  an  inadequate  idea  of  the 
variety.  Of  one  species  alone  Dr.  Vasey  has  enumerated  nine  varieties,  and 
advances  the  opinion  that  several  will  be  eventually  considered  as  species. 
They  are  found  at  all  altitudes,  mostly  on  the  slopes.  ^ Perhaps  the  most 
important  single  species  in  that  region  is  the  Bouteloua  oligostacJiya :,  the 
so  called  “Circle  grass”.  It  has  a peculiar  habit  of  forming  partial  or 
complete  circles  on  the  ground,  with  areas  of  bare  ground  in  the  center. 
These  turfy  rings  are  comparatively  narrow,  often  not  more  than  three  or 
four  inches  in  width,  while  the  circles  are  from  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
The  form  is  not  always  circular,  but  often  assumes  irregular  shapes. 
The  grass  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  but  its  chief  value  consists  in  its  power 
to  resist  inclement  seasons,  as  it  cures  standing,  like  the  “ Buffalo  grass  ” of 
the  Great  Plains. 

Another  very  valuable  grass  is  the  Eriocoma  cuspidata , which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  “ Sand  grass”.  It  grows  at  much  lower  altitudes, 
and  is  properly  a valley  grass.  It  has  a solitary,  scattering  habit,  or  at 
least  the  bunches  are  small  and  turfless.  Horses  and  cattle  select  it  with 
care  from  among  other  species,  and  it  seems  especially  nutritious.  It  has 
a large  black  grain,  which  is  often  collected  by  the  Indians  for  food. 

A remarkable  lowland  grass  is  the  Vilfa  ( Sporobolis  airoides).  It 
has  something  of  the  appearance  of  “ Hair  grass”,  with  a widely  spreading 
purple  panicle  and  large  perennial  roots.  The  old  culms  persist  at  the  base, 
and  with  the  new  ones  form  thick  and  almost  woody  tufts.  These  tufts  are 
scattered  about  in  the  strongly  akaline  soils  of  the  river  bottoms,  and 
are  extensively  pastured  by  large  herds  of  cattle.  A marked  characteristic 
of  this  grass,  common,  however,  to  several  others,  is  its  power  to  take  up 
saline  matter,  which  gives  to  the  whole  plant  a salty  taste.  The.  effect  of 
this  upon  the  stock  feeding  upon  it  is  doubtful,  judging  from  the  conflicting 
reports  of  the  inhabitants  ; but  it  seems  that  when  cattle  are  first  pastured 
upon  it  they  are  injured  by  the  excess  of  salt,  but  that  after  a time  they 


THE  LANDS  OF  UTAH. 


109 


cease  to  be  injured  by  it.  All  of  the  so  called  “ Salt  grasses”  are  cropped 
to  a greater  or  less  extent  by  stock. 

The  chief  grasses  of  the  elevated  timber  tracts  belong  to  the  genus 
Bromus.  When  young  they  are  good,  but  they  become  stale  and  valueless 
with  age.  The  only  grass  that  can  compare  with  those  of  the  eastern  mead- 
ows, and  which  forms  a continuous  sod  and  covers  the  ground  with  a uniform 
growth,  is  a variety  of  Aira  coespitosa,  a red  topped  grass,  which  was  found 
surrounding  the  small  lakes  of  the  mountains  and  plateaus,  at  elevations  of 
11,000  feet  and  over.  This  is  an  exceedingly  beautiful  grass  as  it  waves 
in  the  gentle  breezes  that  fan  the  lakelets  of  the  upper  regions. 

Pliragmites  communis , the  so  called  “ Cane  ”,  is  common  in  the  glades 
and  sloughs  ; and,  though  large  and  rather  dry,  it  furnishes  the  only  verdure 
obtainable  for  months  in  severe  seasons. 

Much  of  the  hay  and  pasturage  of  the  country,  which  is  there  called 
grass,  consists  of  plants  of  different  families.  Notable  among  these  are 
several  species  of  Carex  (sedges),  particularly  Carex  Jamesii,  which  springs 
up  wherever  artificial  meadows  are  made  by  the  system  of  flooding  com- 
monly practiced.  The  plants  have  large,  strong,  subterranean  root- 
stocks, forming  a tangled  mass  which,  when  once  established,  cannot 
easily  be  eradicated.  The  leaves  are  broad  and  grasslike,  and,  though 
coarse  and  comparatively  insipid,  form  a good  sward  which  can  be 
mowed — a rare  condition  in  that  country ; and  hence  such  meadows  are 
highly  prized. 

Juncus  Balticus , var.  montanus , which  has  a blue  color,  terete 
culms,  and  tough  fiber,  and  which  the  settlers  call  “ Wire  grass  ”,  is 
very  abundant.  It  is  cut  for  hay,  and  is  said  to  serve  a good  purpose  as 
such. 

There  are  some  shrubs  that  furnish  excellent  browsing,  among  which, 
perhaps,  the  grease  wood  takes  the  first  rank.  The  sage  brush,  Artemisia , 
on  the  contrary,  is  seldom  resorted  to.  There  is  one  shrub  to  which  great 
virtues  are  ascribed  which  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  This 
is  the  Cercocarpus  parvifolius,  which  occupies  the  mountain  sides  for  a 
wide  zone  of  altitude.  The  foliage,  though  not  strictly  evergreen,  remains 
most  of  the  winter,  and  is  said  to  afford  the  only  food  for  horses  and  cattle 


110  LANDS  OF  THE  AEID  KEGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

that  can  be  obtained  during  some  seasons  of  deep  snows.  This  shrub  is  a 
congener  of  the  well  known  mountain  mahogany,  C.  ledifolius , which  grows 
at  higher  altitudes,  and  has  truly  evergreen  foliage. 

The  small  perennial  plant  JEurotia  lanata,  or  “White  sage”,  found 
growing  in  the  valleys  and  plains,  is  held  in  high  esteem  as  winter  food  for 
stock. 

The  growth  of  grass,  even  on  the  plateaus,  is  often  scant ; on  the  foot 
hills  it  becomes  less,  and  farther  away  from  the  highlands  it  still  dimin- 
ishes in  quantity  until  absolute  deserts  are  found.  Most  of  the  grasses 
seem  to  protect  themselves  from  the  great  aridity  by  growing,  in  bunches. 
They  appear  to  produce  proportionately  a greater  amount  of  seeds  than  the 
grasses  of  the  Humid  Region,  and  their  nutritive  qualities,  especially  in 
winter,  seems  to  be  due  thereto.  In  general,  the  grasses  seem  to  have  large, 
strong  stems,  and  are  not  so  easily  broken  down  as  those  of  the  Humid 
Region,  and  the  rains  and  snows  by  which  they  would  be  so  broken  down 
are  infrequent.  Again,  for  these  reasons,  the  grasses,  standing  long  after 
they  are  cut  by  frosts,  cure  themselves,  forming  thereby  a winter  pasturage. 

The  irrigable  lands  of  Utah  will  be  discussed  more  thoroughly  and  in 
detail  in  subsequent  chapters  by  Mr.  G.  K.  Gilbert,  who  has  made  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  District  his  study;  by  Capt.  C.  E.  Dutton,  who  has  prepared  the 
chapter  on  the  irrigable  lands  of  the  Sevier  Lake  Drainage,  and  by  Prof. 
A.  H.  Thompson,  who  has  written  the  chapter  on  the  irrigable  lands  of  the 
Colorado  Drainage. 

The  following  is  a table  of  the  irrigable  lands,  arranged  by  districts, 
as  discussed  in  the  present  chapter.  The  table  is  compiled  from  those 
presented  in  subsequent  chapters. 


THE  LANDS  OP  UTAH. 


Ill 


Table  of  irrigable  lands  in  Utah  Territory. 


~ . M 3 00  “ M W M W jg  J O w JO  W £ JS  M ® 


112  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


s P s 


CHAPTER  VII. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE 
DRAINAGE  SYSTEM. 

By  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

The  field  of  my  work  in  1877  included  so  large  a portion  of  the 
drainage  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  so  little  else  that  it  has  proved  most 
convenient  to  report  on  all  of  that  basin,  or  rather  on  that  part  of  it  which 
lies  within  the  Territory  of  Utah.  In  so  doing,  I have  depended,  for  nearly 
all  the  lands  draining  to  Utah  Lake,  upon  the  data  gathered  by  Mr.  Ren- 
shawe,  of  this  survey,  in  connection  with  his  topographic  work.  The 
remainder  of  the  district,  with  very  slight  exception,  I have  myself  visited. 

The  officials  and  citizens  of  the  Territory  have  all  freely  contributed 
such  information  as  I have  sought,  and  have  aided  me  in  many  ways ; 
but  I have  been  especially  indebted  to  Mr.  Marti neau  and  Mr.  Barton,  the 
surveyors  of  Cache  and  Davis  Counties;  to  Mr.  Fox,  the  territorial  sur- 
veyor; and  to  the  Hon  A P.  Rockwood,  the  statistician  of  the  Deseret 
Agricultural  Society.  Mr.  Rockwood  prepared  a statistical  report  on  the 
Territory  in  1875,  which  has  been  of  great  service  to  me,  and  he  has 
kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  the  manuscript  details  of  his  work  as  well  as 
the  published  summary. 

METHOD  AND  SCOPE  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

J Where  agriculture  is  dependent  upon  irrigation,  the  extent  of  land  that 
can  be  put  to  agricultural  use  is  determined  by  the  relation  of  the  quantity 
of  available  water  to  the  quantity  of  available  land.  There  is  a certain 
amount  of  water  needed  by  a unit  of  land,  and  wherever  the  laud  suscep- 
tible of  cultivation  requires  more  water  than  is  obtainable,  only  a portion 

113 


15  A R 


J 14  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  TIIE  UNITED  STATES. 


of  the  land  can  be  utilized.  But  there  is  also  a limit  to  the  amount  of 
water  that  can  be  profitably  emplo}'ed  on  a unit  of  land,  and  where  the 
supply  of  water  is  in  excess  of  the  quantity  required  by  such  lands  as  are 
properly  disposed  to  receive  and  use  it,  only  a portion  of  the  water  can  be 
utilized.  In  order  to  ascertain,  therefore,  the  extent  of  agricultural  land  in 
a given  district,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a measurement  of  land,  or  a 
measurement  of  water,  or  perhaps  both,  and  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
amount  of  water  demanded  by  a unit  area  of  the  land  under  consideration. 

The  proper  quota  of  water  for  irrigation  depends  on  climate  and  soil 
and  subsoil,  as  well  as  on  the  nature  of  the  crop,  and  varies  indefinitely 
under  diverse  conditions.  As  a rule,  the  best  soils  require  least  water;  those 
which  demand  most  are  light  sands  on  one  hand  and  adhesive  clays  on  the 
other.  Where  the  subsoil  is  open  and  dry,  more  water  is  needed  than  where 
it  is  moist  or  impervious.  Wherever  there  is  an  impervious  substratum,  the 
subsoil  accumulates  moisture  and  the  demand  for  water  diminishes  from 
year  to  year.  These  and  other  considerations  so  complicate  the  subject 
that  it  is  difficult  to  generalize,  and  I have  found  it  more  practicable  to  use 
in  my  investigations  certain  limiting  quantities  than  to  attempt  in  every 
case  a diagnosis  of  the  local  conditions.  By  comparing  the  volumes  of 
certain  streams  in  Utah,  that  are  now  used  in  irrigation  to  their  full  capacity, 
with  the  quantities  of  land  that  they  serve,  I have  found  that  one  hundred 
acres  of  dry  bench  land  ( i . e.,  land  with  a deep,  dry,  open  subsoil)  will  not 
yield  a full  crop  of  grain  with  less  than  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second, 
and  this  under  the  most  favorable  climate  of  the  Territory.  Where  the 
climate  is  drier,  a greater  quantity  is  required.  Where  there  is  a moist 
subsoil,  a less  may  suffice. 

In  the  drier  districts,  where  the  streams  are  small,  they  are  usually 
employed  upon  the  dry  benches,  because  these  are  most  convenient  to  their 
sources ; and  it  is  very  rarely  the  case  that  their  utility  is  increased  by  the 
presence  of  a moist  subsoil.  But  it  is  also  in  the  drier  districts  that  the 
extent  of  agricultural  land  is  ascertained  by  the  measurement  of  streams ; 
and  hence  there  is  little  danger  of  error  if  we  use  in  all  cases  the  criterion 
that  applies  to  dry  bench  land  In  the  discussion  of  the  lands  of  northern 
Utah,  I have  therefore  assigned  to  each  cubic  foot  per  second  of  perennial 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  115 


flow  the  reclamation  of  one  hundred  acres  of  land,  with  the  belief  that  the 
consequent  estimates  would  never  underrate,  though  they  might  sometimes 
exaggerate,  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  districts  examined. 

In  the  measurement  of  streams  the  following  method  was  employed : 
.V  place  was  sought  where  the  channel  was  straight  for  a distance  equal  to 
several  times  the  width  of  the  stream,  and  where  for  some  distance  there  was 
little  change  in  the  dimensions  of  the  cross  section.  Measurement  was 
then  made  of  the  width  (in  feet),  of  the  mean  depth  (in  feet),  and  of  the 
maximum  surface  current  (in  feet,  per  second).  The  mean  current  was 
assumed  to  be  four-fifths  of  the  maximum  current  ; and  four-fifths  of  the 
product  of  the  three  measured  elements  was  taken  to  give  the  flow  in  cubic 
feet  per  second.  This  method  of  measurement  is  confessedly  crude,  and  is 
liable  to  considerable  error,  but  with  the  time  at  my  disposal  no  better  was 
practicable,  and  its  shortcomings  are  less  to  be  regretted  on  account  of  the 
variability  of  the  streams  themselves. 

All  of  the  streams  of  Utah  that  flow  from  mountain  slopes  are  subject 
to  great  fluctuations.  They  derive  a large  share  of  their  water  from  the 
melting  of  snow,  and  not  only  does  the  melting  vary  as  to  its  rapidity  and 
season,  but  the  quantity  of  snow  to  be  melted  varies  greatly  from  year  to 
year.  A single  measurement  standing-  alone  is  quite  inadequate  to 
determine  the  capacity  of  a stream  for  irrigation,  and  as  it  was  rarely 
practicable  to  visit  a stream  more  than  once,  an  endeavor  was  made  to 
supplement  the  single  determination  by  collating  the  judgments  of  residents 
as  to  the  relative  flow  of  the  several  creeks  and  rivers  at  other  seasons  and 
in  other  years.  In  districts  where  the  water  is  nearly  all  used  and  its 
division  and  distribution  are  supervised  by  u watermasters  ”,  those  function- 
aries are  able  to  afford  information  of  a tolerably  definite  character,  but  in 
other  districts  it  was  necessary  to  make  great  allowance  for  errors  of 
judgment.  Certainly,  that  element  of  my  estimates  which  is  based  on 
inquiries  cannot  claim  so  small  a probability  of  error  as  the  element  based 
on  measurements. 

,/  Streams  that  are  formed  in  high  mountains  reach  their  highest  stage 
in  June,  and  their  lowest  in  September  or  October.  Streams  from  low 
mountains  attain  their  maxima  in  April  or  May,  and  reach  their  low  stages 


lfi  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


by  August  or  September.  In  the  low  valleys  the  irrigation  of  wheat  and 
other  small  grains  begins  about  the  first  of  June,  and  continues  until  the 
latter  part  of  July.  The  irrigation  of  corn  and  potatoes  begins  in  the 
early  part  of  July,  and  continues  until  the  middle  of  August.  In  the 
middle  of  July  all  of  the  land  calls  for  water,  and  if  the  supply  is  suffi- 
cient at  that  time,  it  is  sure  to  meet  all  demands  at  other  times.  It  will  be 
convenient  to  call  that  time  the  critical  season.  In  the  higher  agricultural 
valleys  corn  and  potatoes  are  not  grown,  but  the  irrigation  of  small  grains 
and  hay  is  carried  on  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle  or  latter  part 
of  August.  Through  all  this  time  the  volume  of  the  streams  is  diminishing, 
and  if  they  fail  at  all  it  is  at  the  end  of  the  season.  The  critical  season 
for  the  higher  valleys  is  about  the  middle  of  August. 

In  order  to  estimate  properly  the  agricultural  capability  of  a stream, 
it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  its  volume  at  its  critical  season.  In  the  investi- 
gations of  the  past  summer,  this  was  accomplished  by  direct  measurement 
in  but  a limited  district.  For  the  remainder  of  my  field  of  operations  I 
was  compelled  to  depend  on  the  estimates  of  others  as  to  the  relation 
between  the  volumes  of  streams  at  the  time  of  measurement  and  at  the 
critical  season. 

J As  will  appear  in  the  sequel,  the  uncertainty  attaching  to  these 
determinations  of  volumes  affects  the  grand  total  in  but  small  degree. 
The  utility  of  the  large  streams  is  not  limited  by  their  volumes  so  much  as 
by  the  available  land  suitable  for  overflow,  a quantity  susceptible  of  more 
accurate  determination,  and  the  extent  of  land  irrigable  by  the  large 
streams  is  many  times  greater  than  that  irrigable  by  the  small. 

No  streams  are  used  throughout  the  year,  and  few  can  be  fully  utilized 
during  the  spring  flood.  Wherever  it  is  practicable  to  store  up  the  surplus 
water  until  the  time  of  need,  the  irrigable  area  is  correspondingly  increased. 
Enough  has  been  accomplished  in  a few  localities  to  demonstrate  the 
feasibility  of  reclaiming  thousands  of  acres  by  the  aid  of  reservoirs,  and 
eventually  this  will  be  done;  but  except  in  a small  way  it  is  not  a work  of 
the  immediate  future.  For  many  years  to  come  capital  will  find  greater 
remuneration  in  taking  possession  of  the  large  rivers. 

In  estimating  the  agricultural  resources,  it  was,  of  course,  necessary  to 


IRE IG ABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  117 


take  account  of  all  future  increase,  and  wherever  storage  by  reservoirs 
seemed  practicable  a rough  estimate  was  made  of  the  extent  of  land  that 
could  be  thus  reclaimed. 

There  are  a few  restricted  areas  in  Utah  that  yield  remunerative  crops 
to  the  farmer  without  the  artificial  application  of  water.  Their  productive- 
ness is  doubled  or  trebled  by  the  use  of  water,  and  so  far  as  they  are  sus- 
ceptible of  irrigation  they  need  not  be  distinguished  from  the  irrigable 
lands.  When  the  greater  rivers  shall  have  been  diverted  to  the  work  of 
irrigation,  nearly  all  such  areas  will  be  supplied  with  water,  but  a few  will 
not.  The  endeavor  has  been  to  include  the  latter  as  well  as  the  former 
in  the  estimate  of  the  agricultural  land. 

The  term  “agricultural  land”  is  construed  to  include  that  which  is 
used  or  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  hay  as  well  as  that  cultivated 
by  the  plow  Most  irrigable  lands  may  be  utilized  in  either  way,  but  there 
are  some  tracts  which,  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate  or  the 
impurity  of  the  water,  are  adapted  to  the  growth  of  grass  only. 

I have  sought  in  the  foregoing  remarks  to  set  forth  as  briefly  as 
possible  the  methods  and  scope  of  my  investigations,  and  to  indicate  the 
degree  of  accuracy  to  be  anticipated  in  the  resulting  estimates.  To  these 
estimates  we  will  now  proceed. 

IRRIGATION  BY  TIIE  LARGE  STREAMS. 

Three  rivers  enter  Great  Salt  Lake — the  Bear,  the  Weber,  and  the 
Jordan,  and  upon  their  water  will  ultimately  depend  the  major  part  of  the 
agriculture  of  Utah.  By  a curious  coincidence,  the  principal  heads  of  the 
three  rivers  lie  close  together  in  the  western  end  of  the  Uinta  range  of 
mountains. 

The  Bear  Biver  runs  northward  at  first,  and  a little  beyond  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  enters  the  Territory  of  Wyoming.  Swerving  to  the  left,  it 
passes  again  into  Utah,  and  swerving  again  to  the  right  returns  to  Wyo- 
ming. From  Wyoming  it  runs  northward  into  Idaho,  and  after  making 
a great  detour  to  the  north  returns  on  a more  westerly  line  to  Utah.  It 
reenters  in  Cache  Valley,  and  passes  thence  by  a short  canon  to  its  delta 
plain  on  the  northwestern  border  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  Its  principal  tribu- 


18  LANDS  OF  THE  A FID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


taries  are  received  in  Idaho  and  in  Cache  Valley.  Bordering  upon  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  river,  there  is  little  land  available  for  cultivation,  and 
the  climate  forbids  any  crop  but  hay.  I am  informed  that  the  meadow 
land  there  somewhat  exceeds  two  square  miles  in  area  Where  the  river 
next  enters  Utah  it  runs  for  30  miles  through  an  open  valley,  the  valley 
that  contains  the  towns  of  Woodruff  and  Randolph.  At  the  head  it  passes 
through  a short  defile,  and  can  readily  be  thrown  into  two  canals  at  such  a 
level  as  to  command  the  greater  part  of  the  valley,  bringing  about  90 
square  miles  of  land  “under  ditch”.  For  the  irrigation  of  this  amount  the 
river  is  sufficient,  but  if  the  necessary  water  were  thus  appropriated,  too 
little  would  remain  for  the  use  of  the  lands  which  border  the  contiguous 
portions  of  the  river  in  Wyoming.  These  have  equal  claim  to  the  use  of 
the  river,  and  a proper  distribution  of  the  water  would  assign  it  to  the 
reclamation  of  the  best  selection  of  land  in  the  two  Territories.  I estimate 
that  such  an  adjustment  would  permit  the  Utah  valley  to  irrigate  45  square 
miles  with  the  water  of  the  river.  The  minor  streams  of  the  valley  will 
serve,  in  addition,  24  square  miles.  The  climate  is  unfavorable  to  grain 
and  the  chief  crop  must  be  of  hay. 

Where  the  river  next  enters  Utah  it  has  acquired  so  great  a volume 
that  it  is  impracticable  to  make  use  of  its  entire  amount.  The  portion  ot 
Cache  Valley  which  lies  in  Utah  can  nearly  all  be  irrigated.  What  is  on 
the  left  bank  of  Bear  River  can  be  served  by  Logan  River  and  other  trib- 
utaries without  calling  on  the  main  stream.  The  right  bank  will  have  to 
be  served  in  connection  with  an  adjacent  tract  in  Idaho,  and  by  a canal 
lying  entirely  in  that  Territory.  The  expense  will  be  great,  but  not  greater 
than  the  benefit  will  warrant.  I estimate  that  the  Utah  division  of  Cache 
Valley  will  ultimately  contain  250  square  miles  of  irrigated  land.  The 
climate  admits  of  the  growth  of  wheat,  oats,  and  corn,  and  such  fruits  as 
the  apple,  pear,  and  the  apricot. 

In  leaving  Cache  Valley  the  river  tumbles  through  a short,  narrow 
canon,  and  then  enters  the  plain  that  borders  the  lake.  The  limestone 
walls  of  the  canon  offer  a secure  foundation  for  the  head  works  to  a 
system  of  canals  to  supply  the  plain.  Here,  again,  a large  outlay  is 
necessary,  but  the  benefits  will  be  more  than  commensurate.  Not  only 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  119 


will  the  entire  alluvial  plain  of  the  Bear  be  served,  but  the  valley  of  the 
Malade,  as  far  as  Oregon  Springs,  and  the  valley  which  extends  from  Little 
Mountain  to  Connor’s  Spring.  After  deducting  from  these  areas  the  land 
along  the  margin  of  the  lake  that  is  too  saline  to  afford  hope  of  reclamation, 
there  remains  a tract  of  214  square  miles.  One-tenth  of  this  is  now  in  use, 
being  in  part  watered  by  Box  Elder  Creek  and  other  small  creeks,  and  in 
part  cultivated  without  irrigation. 

In  the  following  table  are  summed  the  agricultural  resources  of  that 
portion  of  the  Bear  River  drainage  basin  which  lies  in  Utah  : 


Base  of  Uinta  Mouutaius 

Yellow  Creek  an<l  Duck  Creek  

! Randolph  Valley  and  Saleratus  Creek 

Shores  of  Bear  Lake 

Cache  Valley  

Delta  Plain.  Malade  Valley,  and  Connor's  Spring  Valley 
Box  Elder  Valley  (Mantua) 

Total 

The  entire  area  of  the  Bear  River  District  is  about  3,620  square  miles, 
2.]  per  cent,  being  now  under  cultivation,  and  over  15  per  cent,  susceptible 
of  cultivation. 

/ The  Weber  River  runs  with  a general  northwesterly  course  from  the 

Uinta  Mountains  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  entering  the  latter  at  the  middle  of  its 
eastern  shore.  The  Ogden  is  its  only  important  tributary.  At  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  it  enters  Kamas  Prairie,  in  which  it  can  be  made  to  irrigate 
a few  square  miles.  Thence  to  Hennefer,  a distance  of  30  miles,  it  is 
continuously  bordered  by  a strip  of  farming  land  about  one-third  of  a mile 
broad.  Then  it  passes  a series  of  three  close  canons — in  the  intervals  of 
which  are  Round  Valley,  with  a few  acres  of  land,  and  Morgan  Valley, 
with  7 square  miles — and  emerges  upon  its  delta  plain.  Within  this 
plain  are  no  less  than  219  square  miles  of  farming  land,  of  which  about 
two-fifths  are  now  in  use.  A part  is  unwatered,  a part  is  watered  by  the 
Ogden  River  and  by  a number  of  creeks,  and  the  remainder  is  watered  by 
the  Weber.  To  serve  the  higher  portions  of  the  plain  a great  outlay  would 
be  required,  and  I am  of  opinion  that  the  highest  levels  cannot  profitably 


120  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


be  supplied.  Still,  a great  extension  of  the  irrigated  area  is  inevitable, 
and  I anticipate  that  when  the  water  of  the  Weber  has  been  carried  as  far 
as  is  economically  practicable,  not  more  than  15  miles  of  the  plain  will 
remain  unsupplied.  Deducting  this  amount,  as  well  as  the  area  served  by 
the  minor  streams  and  springs  of  the  plain,  there  remain  1 85  square  miles 
dependent  on  the  Weber  and  Ogden  Rivers.  The  Ogden  River  has  also  to 
water  8 square  miles  in  its  upper  course,  and  the  Weber  34,  making  a 
total  of  227  square  miles  dependent  on  the  two  streams.  Whether  they  are 
competent  to  serve  so  great  an  area  may  well  be  questioned.  On  the  8th 
of  October  I found  in  the  Ogden  River,  at  the  mouth  of  its  canon,  a flow  of 
115  feet  per  second,  and  three  days  later  the  Weber  showed  386  feet. 
There  was  almost  no  irrigation  in  progress  at  that  time,  and  the  total  of  501 
feet  included  practically  all  the  water  of  the  streams.  To  irrigate  227 
square  miles,  the  rivers  need  to  furnish  at  the  critical  season  (in  this  case 
about  the  10th  of  July)  1,450  feet,  or  nearly  three  times  their  October 
volume.  Of  the  ratio  between  their  July  and  October  volumes  I have  no 
direct  means  of  judging,  and  the  problem  is  too  nice  a one  to  be  trusted 
to  the  estimates  of  residents  unaided  by  measurements ; but  indirectly  a 
partial  judgment  may  be  reached  by  comparing  the  rivers  with  certain 
tributaries  of  the  Jordan  which  were  twice  observed.  City  Creek  was 
measured  on  the  5th  of  July,  and  again  on  1st  of  September,  and  Emi- 
gration and  Parley  creeks  were  measured  July  5th,  and  again  September 
3rd.  These  streams  rise  in  mountains  that  are  about  as  high  as  those  which 
furnish  the  Weber  and  its  branches,  and  their  conditions  are  generally 
parallel.  Their  measured  volumes  were  as  follows  : 


j City  Creek 

Emigration  Creek 
! Parley’s  Creek 

The  comparison  is  not  decisive,  but  it  seems  to  show  that  the  problem 
demands  for  its  solution  a careful  examination  at  the  “ critical  season.”  If 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  121 


the  Ogden  and  Weber  had  been  measured  in  September,  as  were  the  other 
streams,  their  volumes  would  probably  have  been  found  less  than  in 
October ; and  this  consideration  appears  to  throw  the  balance  of  evidence 
against  the  competence  of  the  rivers  to  water  the  contiguous  lands. 

But  if  their  incompetence  shall  be  proved,  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
lands  must  go  dry.  The  Bear  at  the  north  and  the  Jordan  at  the  south 
have  each  a great  volume  of  surplus  water,  and  either  supply  can  be  led 
without  serious  engineering  difficulty  to  the  lower  levels  of  the  delta  of  the 
W eber. 

In  the  following  table  are  summed  the  agricultural  resources  of  the 


The  estimate  of  219  miles  of  cultivable  land  on  the  Delta  Plain 
includes  15  miles  that  will  probably  never  be  irrigated,  but  may  neverthe- 
less be  farmed. 


The  total  area  of  the  Weber  basin  (including  the  whole  plain  from 
Bonneville  to  Centerville,  and  excluding  the  main  body  of  Kamas  Prairie) 
is  2,450  square  miles;  4f  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  now  under  cultivation, 
and  10J  per  cent,  is  susceptible  of  cultivation. 

The  Jordan  River  is  the  outlet  of  Utah  Lake,  and  runs  northward, 
entering  Great  Salt  Lake  at  its  southeastern  angle.  On  the  right  it  receives 
a number  of  large  tributaries  from  the  Wasatch  Range.  The  largest  trib- 
utary of  Utah  Lake  is  the  Provo  River,  which  rises  in  the  Uinta  Mountains 
close  to  the  heads  of  the  Weber  and  Bear. 

From  the  mouth  of  its  mountain,  canon  the  Provo  enters  Kamas 
Prairie,  and  it  hugs  the  South  margin  of  the  plain  just  as  the  Weber  hugs 
16  AE 


122 


LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  north  margin,  passing  out  by  a narrow  defile  at  the  southwest  corner. 
At  one  time  in  the  history  of  the  prairie  the  Provo  flowed  northward 
through  it  and  joined  itself  to  the  Weber.  The  surface  of  the  prairie  was 
then  lower  than  now,  and  the  sand  and  gravel  which  the  river  brought 
from  the  mountains  accumulated  upon  it.  Eventually  the  Provo  built  its 
alluvium  so  high  that  its  water  found  a new  passage  over  the  wall  of  the 
valley.  The  new  channel,  affording  a more  rapid  descent  than  the  old, 
quickened  the  current  through  the  valley,  and  caused  it  to  reverse  its  action 
and  begin  the  excavation  of  the  material  it  had  deposited.  So  long  as  the 
river  built  up  its  bed,  its  channel  was  inconstant,  shifting  from  place  to 
place  over  the  whole  plain;  but  so  soon  as  it  began  to  cut  away  the  bed, 
its  position  became  fixed  and  the  plain  was  abandoned.  The  river  now 
flows  in  a narrow  valley  of  its  own  making,  1 50  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  plain.  As  a result  of  this  mode  of  origin,  Kamas  Prairie  slopes  uni- 
formly from  the  Provo  to  the  Weber,  and  it  would  be  an  immense  under- 
taking to  irrigate  it  with  the  water  of  the  Weber.  But  the  Provo  River 
can  be  returned  to  its  ancient  djaty  with  comparative  ease.  A few  miles 
of  canal  will  suffice  to  carry  its  water  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  plain,  and 
thence  it  can  be  led  to  every  part.  Already  a small  canal  has  been  con- 
structed, and  its  enlargement  may  convert  the  whole  prairie  into  a meadow. 
Thus  the  prairie,  although  part  of  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Weber,  belongs 
to  the  irrigation  district  of  the  Provo. 

The  Provo  next  follows  a narrow  rock  bound  valley  for  7 miles,  being 
skirted  by  bottom  lands  that  admit  of  some  farming.  It  then  enters  Provo 
Valley,  an  opening  about  as  large  as  the  last,  and  favored  by  a warm 
climate  that  permits  the  growth  of  breadstuff's.  Thence  to  Utah  Valley 
it  follows  a deep,  close  canon. 

The  volume  of  the  Provo  is  sufficient  to  water  about  100  square  miles. 
If  it  be  permitted  to  serve  28  miles  in  Kamas  Prairie  and  40  miles  in  Provo 
Valley  and  its  adjuncts,  there  will  remain  for  Utah  Valley  the  quota  for  32 
miles.  The  minor  streams  of  the  valley,  American  Fork,  Spanish  Fork, 
Hobble  Creek,  Payson  Creek,  etc.,  will  irrigate  120  miles,  making  a total 
of  152  square  miles  supplied  with  water.  The  total  land  of  the  valley 
which  might  be  irrigated  if  the  water  were  sufficient  amounts  to  no  less 
than  225  miles. 


IRRIGABLE  LARDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  123 

Thus  it  appears  that  if  all  available  lands  on  the  upper  Provo  are 
reclaimed,  one-third  of  Utah  Valley  must  go  un watered,  while  if  none  of 
them  are  irrigated,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  valley  will  be  supplied.  A 
middle  course  would  appear  most  wise,  and  will  undoubtedly  be  followed. 
A gradual  extension  of  the  canals,  as  the  demands  and  means  of  the  com- 
munities dictate  and  permit,  will  bring  lands  successively  into  use  in  the 
order  of  their  value  and  convenience,  and  when  the  limit  is  reached  and 
title  has  been  acquired  to  all  the  water,  the  most  available  lands  in  each  of 
the  three  valleys  traversed  by  the  Provo  will  have  been  reclaimed.  The 
residents  of  Kamas  Prairie  will  probably  have  increased  their  meadows  so 
as  to  furnish  winter  hay  for  herds  sufficient  to  stock  the  summer  pastures 
of  the  vicinity;  Provo  Valley,  having  a less  favorable  climate  than  Utah 
Valley,  will  have  irrigated  only  its  choicest  soils;  and  'the  major  part  of  the 
river  will  belong  to  Utah  Valley.  The  apportionment  may  be  roughly 
estimated  as — Kamas  Prairie,  10  miles;  Provo  Valley  and  Waldsburg,  20 
miles,  and  Utah  Valley,  70  miles. 

Below  Utah  Lake  there  is  little  inequality  of  volume  dependent  on 
season.  The  lake  is  a natural  reservoir  127  square  miles  in  extent,  and  so  far 
equalizes  the  outflow  through  the  Jordan  that  the  volume  of  that  stream  is 
less  affected  by  the  mean  level  of  the  lake  than  by  the  influence  of  north- 
erly and  southerly  winds.  With  suitable  head  works  its  volume  can  be 
completely  controlled,  and,  if  desirable,  the  entire  discharge  of  the  lake 
can  be  concentrated  in  the  season  of  irrigation. 

The  highest  stage  of  the  lake  is  in  July,  and  the  lowest  in  March  or 
April ; and  the  natural  volume  of  its  outlet  has  of  course  a corresponding 
change.  In  July  1 found  that  volume  to  be  1,275  feet  per  second,  and  I 
am  informed  by  residents  that  the  stream  carried  more  than  one-half  as 
much  water  in  its  low  stage;  1,000  feet  is  perhaps  not  far  from  the  mean 
volume.  When  all  possible  use  is  made  of  Provo  River  and  other  tribu- 
taries the  annual  inflow  of  the  lake  will  be  diminished  by  about  one-eighth, 
and  the  outflow  by  a greater  fraction,  which  we  will  assume  to  be  one- 
quarter.  (This  postulates  that  the  evaporation  is  at  the  rate  of  90  inches 
per  year  for  the  whole  lake  surface.)  The  remaining  perennial  outflow  of 
750  feet  per  second,  if  concentrated  into  four  months,  would  irrigate  for 


124  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


that  period  350  square  miles.  It  will  be  practicable  to  include  under  canals 
from  the  Jordan  only  about  160  square  miles  of  farming  land,  and  I think 
it  safe  to  assume  that  the  supply  of  water  will  be  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
demand. 

At  the  present  time  the  Jordan  is  little  used,  the  chief  irrigation  of 
Salt  Lake  Valley  being  performed  by  the  large  creeks  that  flow  from  the 
mountains  at  the  east.  It  will  not  be  long,  however,  before  large  canals 
are  constructed  to  carry  the  Jordan  water  to  all  parts  of  the  valley  that  lie 
below  the  level  of  Utah  Lake.  They  will  include  120  square  miles  of 
farming  land. 

The  mountain  streams,  being  no  longer  needed  in  the  lower  parts  of 
the  valley,  will  be  carried  to  higher  land  and  made  to  serve  the  benches  at 
the  base  of  the  mountains.  By  these  means  the  total  agricultural  area  of 
the  valley  will  be  increased  to  192  square  miles.  Eventually,  the  western 
canal  will  be  carried  about  the  north  end  of  the  Oquirrh  range  and  made 
to  irrigate  the  northern  third  of  Tooele  Valley.  It  will  pass  above  the 
farming  lands  of  E.  T.  City  and  Grantsville,  and  enable  the  streams  which 
irrigate  the  latter  town  to  be  used  upon  the  higher  slopes.  The  service  of 
the  Jordan  will  amount  to  no  less  than  40  miles  and  the  agricultural  area 
of  the  valley  will  be  increased  to  about  45  square  miles. 

Including  Tooele  Valley  and  Kamas  Prairie  with  the  drainage  basin 
of  the  Jordan,  its  agricultural  resources  sum  up  as  follows : 


Kamas  Prairie 

Hailstone  Kanche  and  vicinity 

Provo  Valley 

Waldsburg 

Utah  Valley 

Goshen 1 

Mona I Salt  Creek  

Xephi J 

Salt  Lake  Valley  (including  Bountiful  and  Centerville)  . . 
Tooele  Valley 


Total .. 


The  drainage  district  has  an  area  of  4,010  miles ; 4£  per  cent,  are  culti- 
vated, and  Ilf  per  cent,  may  be  cultivated. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  125 


It  will  be  observed  that  in  these  estimates  the  available  water  above 
Utah  Lake  is  regarded  as  insufficient  for  the  available  land,  while  below  the 
lake  there  is  a superabundance  of  water,  and  yet  the  lower  stream  is  only  a 
continuation  of  the  upper  streams.  The  difference  arises  from  the  function 
of  the  lake  as  a reservoir.  Below  the  reservoir  the  whole  of  the  annual 
supply  can  be  controlled,  but  above  it  T have  assumed  that  irrigation  will 
merely  make  use  for  the  irrigating  season  of  the  quantity  which  flows  at 
the  critical  period.  If  artificial  reservoirs  can  be  constructed  so  as  to 
store  water  for  use  in  Utah  Valley,  a greater  area  can  be  cultivated.  With 
adequate  storage  facilities  the  streams  tributary  to  the  lake  can  irrigate  in 
Kamas  Prairie  28  miles ; in  Provo  Valley  and  vicinity  40  miles ; in  Thistle 
Valley  6 miles;  on  Salt  Creek  16  miles,  and  in  Utah  Valley  225  miles, 
making  a total  of  315  miles  ; and  there  will  still  escape  to  the  Jordan  enough 
water  to  serve  all  the  land  assigned  to  that  stream.  If  such  storage  is 
practicable,  the  estimate  tabulated  above  should  show  552  instead  of  473 
miles  of  cultivable  land.  The  region  most  likely  to  afford  storage  facilities 
lies  in  the  mountains  where  the  waters  rise.  I did  not  visit  it,  and  until  it 
has  been  examined  I shall  not  venture  to  increase  the  estimate. 

The  following  table  gives  a summary  for  the  Great  Salt  Lake  river 


This  region  includes  an  eighth  part  of  the  land  area  of  the  Territory, 
and  more  than  one-half  the  agricultural  land.  It  is  the  richest  section  of 
Utah.  Nearly  one-third  of  its  available  land  is  already  in  use.  The  cost 
of  the  canals  by  which  its  cultivated  lands  have  been  furnished  with  water 
has  been  about  $2,000,000.  To  complete  its  system  of  irrigation  will 
probably  cost  $5,000,000  more. 


126  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

IRRIGATION  BY  SMALL  STREAMS. 

Through  the  remainder  of  the  drainage  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake  there 
are  no  large  bodies  of  farming  land.  At  wide  intervals  are  small  tracts, 
dependent  on  springs  and  small  creeks,  and  the  available  land  is  in  nearly 
every  case  greatly  in  excess  of  the  available  water.  A few  exceptional 
spots  are  cultivated  without  irrigation,  but  so  far  as  they  have  been  discov- 
ered they  are  so  situated  as  to  be  moistened  from  beneath.  No  crops  have 
been  raised  on  dry  bench  lands. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  SALT  LAKE  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM.  127 


Nineteen  tracts  have  not  yet  been  surveyed  by  the  land  office. 

The  total  area  of  the  district  is  13,370  square  miles,  of  which  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent,  is  cultivated,  and  one-fourth  of  one  per  cent,  may  be 
cultivated. 

The  contrast  between  the  districts  east  and  west  of  Great  Salt  Lake 
illustrates  the  combination  of  physical  conditions  essential  to  agriculture  in 
our  arid  territories.  An  atmosphere  endowed  with  but  a small  share  of 
moisture  precipitates  freely  only  when  it  is  reduced  to  a low  temperature. 
Agriculture  is. dependent  on  the  precipitation  of  moisture,  but  cannot  endure 
the  associated  cold  climate.  It  can  flourish  only  where  mountain  masses 
turn  over  the  aqueous  product  of  their  cold  climates  to  low  valleys  endowed 
with  genial  climates.  The  Wasatch  and  Uinta  crests  stand  from  6,000  to 
9,000  feet  higher  than  the  valleys  bordering  Great  Salt  Lake.  Their 
climate  has  a temperature  from  20°  to  30°  lower.  The  snows  that  accu- 
mulate upon  them  in  winter  are  not  melted  by  the  first  warmth  of  spring, 
but  yield  slowly  to  the  advancing  sun,  and  all  through  the  season  of 
growing  crops  feed  the  streams  that  water  the  valleys.  The  Bear,  the 
Weber,  and  the  Jordan  carry  the  moisture  of  the  mountains  to  the  warmth 
of  the  valleys,  and  fertility  is  the  result. 

To  the  north  and  west  of  the  lake  there  are  many  mountains,  but 
they  are  too  low  and  small  to  store  up  snow  banks  until  the  time  of  need. 
Their  streams  are  spent  before  the  summer  comes ; and  only  a few  springs 
are  perennial.  The  result  is  a general  desert,  dotted  by  a few  oases. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE 
SEVIER  RIVER. 


By  Captain  C.  E.  Dutton. 

As  an  agricultural  region,  the  valley  of  the  Sevier  River  and  of  its 
tributaries  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Utah.  The  amount  of  arable 
land  which  may  be  reached  by  the  waters  of  the  stream  is  very  much 
larger  than  the  stream  can  water  advantageously,  and  the  time  is  probably 
not  far  distant  when  all  the  water  that  can  be  obtained  will  be  ptilized 
in  producing  cereals,  and  there  is  probably  no  other  region  in  Utah  where 
the  various  problems  relating  to  the  most  economic  use  of  water  will  be 
solved  so  speedily.  It  is,  therefore,  a region  of  unusual  interest,  regarded 
in  the  light  of  the  new  industrial  problems  which  the  irrigation  of  these 
western  lands  is  now  bringing  forward.  Fortunately,  there  is  a smaller 
prospect  of  difficulty  and  obstruction  in  the  settlement  of  the  legal  contro- 
versies which  must  inevitably  arise  elsewhere  out  of  disputes  about  water 
rights  than  will  be  encountered  in  other  regions,  for  the  Mormon  Church  is 
an  institution  which  quietly,  yet  resistlessly,  assumes  the  power  to  settle  . 
such  disputes,  and  the  Mormon  people  in  these  outlying  settlements  yield 
to  its  assumptions  an  unhesitating  obedience.  Whatever  the  church  deems 
best  for  the  general  welfare  of  its  dependencies  it  dictates,  and  what  it 
dictates  is  invariably  done  with  promptitude,  and  none  have  yet  been 
found  to  resist.  This  communal  arrangement  has  been  attended  with  great 
success  so  far  as  the  development  of  the  water  resources  are  concerned, 


128 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER. 


129 


and  the  system  of  management  has  ordinarily  been  so  conducted  that  the 
general  welfare  has  been  immensely  benefited ; and  if  individuals  have 
suffered,  it  has  not  been  made  manifest  by  any  apparent  symptoms  of 
general  discontent  or  of  individual  resistance.  The  system  is  by  no 
means  perfect  as  yet,  but  its  imperfections  may  be  found  in  details  which 
produce  no  present  serious  inconvenience,  and  they  will  no  doubt  be 
remedied  as  rapidly  as  they  attain  the  magnitude  of  great  evils. 

The  Sevier  River  has  its  course  along  the  southeastern  border  of  the 
Great  Basin  of  the  west,  and  its  upper  streams  head  in  the  lofty  divide 
which  separates  the  drainage  system  of  the  Colorado  River  on  the  south 
and  east  from  the  drainage  system  of  the  Great  Basin  on  the  north  and 
west.  The  general  course  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  stream  is  from 
south  to  north,  though  its  tributaries  flow  in  many  directions.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  stream,  within  60  miles  of  its  end,  suddenly  breaks  through 
one  of  the  Basin  Ranges  on  the  west — the  Pavant — and  then  turns  south- 
westward  and  empties  into  Sevier  Lake,  one  of  the  salinas  of  the  Great 
Basin. 

The  main  valley  of  the  Sevier  River  has  a N.  S.  trend,  and  begins 
on  the  divide  referred  to,  about  270  miles  almost  due  south  of  Great  Salt 
Lake,  and  continues  northward  a distance  of  about  170  miles.  There  are 
three  principal  forks  of  this  stream.  The  lowest  fork  is  at  Gunnison,  140 
miles  south  of  Salt  Lake  City,  and  called  the  San  Pete,  which  waters  a fine 
valley  about  45  miles  in  length,  and  which  is  at  present  the  most  important 
agricultural  district  in  Utah.  About  80  miles  farther  up  the  stream,  at 
Circle  Valley,  the  river  divides  into  two  very  nearly  equal  branches;  one 
coming  from  the  south,  the  other  breaking  through  a great  plateau  on  the 
east.  These  are  called,  respectively,  the  South  and  East  Fork  of  the 
Sevier.  The  South  Fork  has  its  principal  fountains  far  up  on  the  surface 
of  a great  plateau — the  Panguiteh  Plateau — whose  broad  expanse  it  drains 
by  three  considerable  streams,  which  finally  unite  in  the  valley  at  the  foot 
of  its  eastern  slope. 

The  East  Fork  of  the  Sevier  receives  the  waters  of  a beautiful  valley 
lying  to  the  eastward  of  and  parallel  to  the  main  valley  of  the  Sevier, 
and  separated  from  it  by  a lofty  plateau  90  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
17  A R 


130  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


south,  and  from  10  to  20  miles  in  breadth,  called  the  Sevier  Plateau. 
Through  this  great  barrier  the  stream  has  cut  a wide  gorge  4,000  feet  in 
depth  and  10  miles  long,  called  East  Fork  Canon,  and  right  at  its  lower 
end  it  joins  the  South  Fork  of  the  Sevier. 

The  physical  geography  of  the  region  drained  by  the  waters  of  the 
river  is  highly  interesting,  and  has  an  important  relation  to  the  subject.  The 
area  in  question  consists  of  a series  of  tabular  blocks,  of  vast  proportions, 
cut  out  of  the  general  platform  of  the  country  by  great  faults,  and  lifted 
above  it  from  2,000  to  nearly  6,000  feet,  so  that  the  absolute  altitudes 
(above  sea  level)  of  the  tables  range  from  i»,000  to  11,500  feet.  Where 
the  valleys  are  lowest  the  tables  are  highest,  and  vice  versa.  The  valleys 
or  lowlands  stand  from  5,000  to  7,500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  plateaus 
have  areas  ranging  from  400  to  1,800  square  miles,  and  collectively  with 
the  included  lowlands  within  the  drainage  system  of  the  Sevier  have  an 
area  of  about  5,400  square  miles.  The  tables  front  the  valleys  with  barriers 
which  are  more  continuous  and  which  more  closely  resemble  long  lines  of 
cliffs  than  the  mountain  chains  and  sierras  of  other  portions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Region,  and  there  are  stretches  of  unbroken  walls,  crowned  with 
vast  precipices,  10,  20,  and  even  40  miles  in  length,  which  look  down  from 
snowy  altitudes  upon  the  broad  and  almost  torrid  expanses  below.  If  the 
palisades  of  the  Hudson  had  ten  times  their  present  altitude  and  five  or 
six  times  their  present  length,  and  if  they  had  been  battered,  notched,  and 
crumbled  by  an  unequal  erosion,  they  would  offer  much  the  same  appearance 
as  that  presented  by  the  wall  of  the  Sevier  Plateau  which  fronts  the  main 
valley  of  the  Sevier.  If  they  were  from  six  to  eight  times  multiplied,  and 
extended  from  Hoboken  to  West  Point,  and  were  similarly  shattered,  they 
would  present  the  appearance  of  the  eastern  wall  of  Grass  Valley.  If  they 
were  eight  to  ten  times  multiplied,  and  imagined  to  extend  around  three- 
fourths  of  the  periphery  of  an  area  40  miles  by  20,  and  but  little  damaged 
by  erosion,  they  would  represent  the  solemn  battlements  of  the  Aquarius 
Plateau.  These  great  plateaus  are  masses  of  volcanic  rock  overlying 
sedimentaries,  the  latter  so  deeply  buried  that  they  are  seldom  seen  even 
in  the  deepest  chasms,  while  superposed  floods  of  volcanic  outflows  are 
shown  in  sections,  reaching  sometimes  a thickness  of  5,000  feet.  The  dark 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER.  131 


colors  of  these  rocks  give  a somber  aspect  to  the  scenery,  and  the  gloomy 
fronts  of  the  towering  precipices  are  rendered  peculiarly  grand  and 
imposing. 

The  prevailing  winds  of  this  region  are  from  the  west,  northwest,  and 
southwest,  and  are  a portion  of  the  more  general  movement  of  the  atmos- 
pheric ocean  which  moves  bodily  from  the  Pacific  to  the  heart  of  the 
continent.  In  crossing  the  Sierra  Nevada  a large  portion  of.  its  moisture  is 
wrung  from  the  air,  which  blows  hot  and  arid  across  the  Great  Basin. 
Notwithstanding  the  aridity  of  the  basin  area,  the  air  gains  about  as  much 
moisture  as  it  loses  in  crossing  it,  until  it  strikes  the  great  barriers  on  the 
east  side  of  the  basin — the  Wasatch  and  the  chain  of  high  plateaus  which 
are  mapped  as  its  southerly  continuation.  Here  the  winds  are  projected  by 
the  bold  fronts  several  thousands  of  feet  upward.  The  consequent  cooling 
and  rarefaction  condense  from  them  an  amount  of  moisture  which,  relatively 
to  that  arid  country,  may  be  called  large,  though  far  less  than  that  of  more 
favored  regions.  In  the  valleys  the  rainfall  is  exceedingly  small ; almost 
the  whole  of  the  precipitation  is  in  the  high  altitudes.  It  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  see  the  heavy  masses  of  the  cumulus  clouds  enveloping  the  summits 
of  all  the  plateaus  while  the  valleys  lie  under  a sky  but  little  obscured. 
The  plateaus,  then,  are  the  reservoirs  where  the  waters  accumulate,  and 
from  which  they  descend  in  many  rivulets  and  rills,  while  around  their 
bases  are  copious  springs  fed  by  the  waters  which  fall  above.  The  rainfall 
in  the  valleys  is  very  small,  as  compared  with  that  upon  the  plateaus,  and 
it  is  also  highly  variable.  No  record  has  been  kept  of  the  precipitation 
within  the  drainage  system  of  the  Sevier,  and  the  nearest  point  where  such 
a record  has  been  kept  is  at  Fort  Cameron,  near  Beaver,  at  the  western 
base  of  the  Tushar  Mountains  These  observations  cover  but  a brief 
period,  and  no  doubt  represent  a much  larger  precipitation  than  that 
which  occurs  in  the  valleys  and  plains  generally,  because  the  situation  of 
the  point  of  observation  is  just  at  the  base  of  the  loftiest  range  in  southern 
Utah,  where  the  air  currents  from  the  west  first  strike  it.  Moreover,  these 
observations  are  not  yet  published,  and  are  not  at  present  available.  In 
the  narrow  valleys  between  closely  approximated  and  lofty  mountain  walls, 
like  the  valley  of  the  Sevier  at  Marysvale,  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  where 


132  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  valley  is  wider,  with  lower  walls,  as  at  Panguitch,  Richfield,  and  Gun- 
nison. An  estimate  of  the  amount  would  he  very  hazardous ; but,  judging 
from  what  is  known  of  similar  localities,  the  amount  in  the  wider  valleys 
may  be  as  low  as  7 or  8 inches,  or  as  high  as  10  or  11.  In  the  narrower 
and  deeper  valleys  it  may  be  between  10  and  12  inches.  Upon  the  plateaus 
it  may  be  as  large  as  30  to  35  inches.  The  principal  fall  is  in  the  winter 
and  spring  months,  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  first  of  June ; and 
in  this  period  at  least  seven-eighths  of  the  precipitation  must  be  accom- 
plished in  the  valleys  and  three-fourths  upon  the  plateaus.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a large  amount  of  variation  in  the  distribution  of  the  monthly  falls 
from  year  to  year.  No  two  consecutive  years  correspond  in  this  respect. 
In  1876  a heavy  storm,  with  great  rainfall  and  snow,  occurred  in  the 
month  of  October,  but  in  1875  and  1877  no  such  storm  occurred.  In  1875 
many  drenching  showers  occurred  in  the  months  of  July  and  August,  but 
none  occurred  at  the  same  months  of  1877.  In  general,  however,  no  sum- 
mer rainfall  has  ever  been  known  of  such  extent  as  to  dispense  with  the 
necessity  of  irrigation,  or  even  to  materially  reduce  the  necessary  amount. 
Great  variability  in  the  distribution  of  the  fall  over  different  months  of  the 
year  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  climate.  But  whatever  the  distri- 
bution, it  is  never  such  as  to  affect  this  one  conspicuous  feature — that  the 
season  in  which  crops  must  have  their  chief  growth  and  reach  their  maturity 
is  the  dry  season. 

Connected  with  the  irrigation  of  the  Sevier  Valley  is  a limiting  condi- 
tion, which  rarely  has  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  lands  watered 
by  the  Bear  and  Weber  Rivers,  and  which  does  not  enter  at  all  into  the 
lands  lying  about  Great  Salt  Lake.  It  is  the  dependence  of  climate  upon 
altitude.  There  are  lands  along  the  upper  portions  of  the  forks  of  the 
Sevier  which  can  be  irrigated  easily  enough,  but  which  are  not  cultivable 
for  grain  on  account  of  the  shortness  of  the  summer  and  of  the  danger  of 
frosts  during  the  growth  and  ripening  of  the  grain.  This  in  turn  is  directly 
connected  with  the  altitude.  At  the  point  where  the  Sevier  leaves  its  main 
valley  and  enters  the  Pavant,  range,  its  altitude  is  5,050  feet  above  sea- 
level.  At  Gunnison  it  is  5,150  feet. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER, 


133 


The  altitudes  of  the  San  Pete  Valley  are  approximately  as  follows: 


Feet, 

Mauti 5, 350 

Ephraim 5,450 

Moroni 5,500 

Springtown 5,550 

Mount  Pleasant 5, 600 

Fail-view 5,725 

Fountain  Green  5,650 


Beginning  at  Gunnison  and  ascending  the  Sevier  along  its  main  course, 


the  altitudes  are  as  follows  : 

Feet. 

Gunnison 5, 100 

Salina 5, 175 

Richfield 5, 300 

Monroe 5, 350 

Joseph  City 5, 375  ' 

Marysvale 5,600 

Circle  Valley  6,000 

Taking  the  East  Fork  in  Grass  Valley  : 

Feet, 

Head  of  East  Fork  Canon 6, 300 

Cousharem 6, 700 

Daniels’  Ranch 7, 000 

Taking  the  South  Fork  : 

Feet. 

Head  of  Panguitcli  Cation 6, 250 

Panguitch 6, 400 

Hillsdale 6, 550 

Junction  of  Mammoth  Creek 6,900 


In  the  San  Pete  Valley,  which  has  been  cultivated  as  far  up  as  Mount 
Pleasant  for  twenty  years,  I cannot  learn  that  any  crop  has  ever  been  injured 
by  frosts,  and  we  may  therefore  conclude  that  this  valley  is  safe  from  such 
an  attack,  unless  a most  abnormal  one.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  main 
Sevier  Valley  from  Joseph  City  downward.  From  Joseph  City  to  Circle 
Valley  there  is  a relatively  small  proportion  of  irrigable  land,  but  such  as 
there  is  may,  I think,  be  regarded  as  safe  from  frost.  Circle  Valley,  where 
the  two  forks  unite,  has  been  cultivated  for  cereals  for  four  years,  and  has 
not  yet  suffered  from  frost,  and  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  such  a calamity  will 
be  very  infrequent  there,  though  it  may  not  be  possible  to  say  there  is  no 
danger.  In  Panguitch  Valley,  a severe  frost  in  August,  1874,  inflicted 
great  injury  upon  the  crops,  and  only  a small  quantity  of  very  inferior 
grain  was  harvested.  But  in  1875,  1876,  and  1877,  excellent  crops  were 


134  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


secured.  Above  Panguitch  the  amount  of  arable  land  is  not  great,  and  the 
danger  to  crops  is  increased.  In  Grass  Valley  there  is  a magnificent 
expanse  of  fertile  arable  land,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that  a large 
portion  of  it  is  so  liable  to  killing  frosts  in  August,  or  even  in  July,  that  the 
cereals  cannot  flourish  there.  The  lower  portion  of  the  valley,  near  the 
head  of  East  Fork  Canon,  is  more  hopeful,  and  it  is  probable  that  a large 
majority  of  crops  planted  there  will  mature,  though  occasional  damage  may 
be  reasonably  looked  for.  The  general  result  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : Below  6,000  feet  crops  may  be  considered  as  safe  from  serious 
damage  by  frosts.  From  6,000  to  7,000  feet  crops  are  liable  to  damage  in 
a degree  proportional  to  the  excess  of  altitude  above  6/100  feet.  Above 

7.000  feet  the  danger  is  probably  such  as  to  render  agriculture  of  little 
value  to  those  who  may  pursue  it. 

The  climate  has  shown  in  past  times  a longer  period  of  variation  than 
the  annual  one.  Panguitch  was  settled  once  in  1860,  but  was  abandoned 
on  account  of  the  destruction  of  crops  by  the  frosts.  The  settlement  was 
renewed  in  1867,  and  again  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  attacks 
of  Indians.  It  was  settled  a third  time  in  1870,  and,  though  crops  have 
occasionally  been  injured,  the  agriculture  has  on  the  whole  proved  remu- 
nerative. 

Let  us  now  look  at  the  irrigable  lands  of  the  Sevier  and  its  tributaries. 
Above  the  town  of  Panguitch,  on  the  South  Fork,  there  is  a considerable 
area  of  arable  land,  which  could  be  easily  reached  by  canals  from  the  main 
stream  and  below  7,000  feet  altitude,  but  for  want  of  a detailed  survey  it 
is  impossible  to  do  more  than  guess  at  the  area.  I think,  however,  that 

8.000  acres  would  be  the  maximum  limit.  This  portion  of  the  valley  is 
liable  to  killing  frosts,  though  during  the  last  three  years  it  has  not  suffered 
from  this  cause.  In  the  long  run,  I believe  agriculture  will  not  prove 
remunerative  here.  From  Panguitch  northward  to  the  head  of  the  Pan- 
guitch Canon,  a distance  of  1 8 miles,  is  a broad  valley,  averaging  5 miles  in 
width,  a very  large  portion  of  which  is  irrigable,  provided  the  water  supply 
is  adequate.  At  least  24,000  acres  may  be  cultivated  without  resort  to 
anything  more  than  the  usual  methods  of  distributing  the  water;  but  not 
the  whole  of  this  area  is  fertile.  The  greater  part  of  the  area  of  Panguitcli 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER, 


135 


Valley  is  composed  of  alluvial  slopes,  or,  as  they  have  been  termed  by 
geologists,  alluvial  cones.  Although  these  surface  features  are  presented  in 
a somewhat  more  typical  and  striking  manner  in  Grass  Valley,  yet  they 
are  well  enough  exhibited  here;  and  as  they  have  an  important  relation  to 
the  subject,  I will  briefly  discuss  them. 

In  a mountainous  country  like  this,  where  the  melting  of  the  snows  in 
spring  or  heavy  rainfalls  at  other  seasons  create  sudden  and  great  torrents, 
large  quantities  of  detritus  are  carried  down  from  the  mountains  into  the 
valleys.  These  mountain  streams,  which  in  summer,  autumn,  and  early 
winter  are  ordinarily  either  very  small  or  wholly  dried  up,  may  upon  certain 
occasions  become  devastating  floods.  The  bottoms  of  the  ravines  are  steep 
water  courses,  down  which  the  angry  torrents  rush  with  a power  which  is 
seldom  comprehended  by  those  who  dwell  in  less  rugged  regions.  Huge 
boulders  weighing  several  tons,  great  trees,  with  smaller  debris  of  rocks, 
gravel,  sand,  and  clay,  are  swept  along  with  resistless  force,  until  the 
decreasing  slope  diminishes  the  energy  sufficiently  to  permit  the  greater 
boulders  to  come  to  rest,  while  the  smaller  ones  are  still  swept  onward. 
The  decrease  of  slope  is  continuous,  so  that  smaller  and  smaller  fragments 
reach  a stable  position,  and  only  cobblestones,  gravel,  or  sand  reach  the 
junctions  of  the  streams  with  the  main  rivers.  Around  the  openings  of 
the  greater  gorges  and  ravines  the  deposits  of  coarser  detritus  build  up  in 
the  lapse  of  time  the  alluvial  cones.  As  it  accumulates,  each  torrent  builds 
up  its  bed  and  constantly  changes  the  position  of  its  channel,  and  with  the 
mouth  of  the  ravine  for  a center  it  sweeps  around  from  right  to  left  and  left 
to  right  like  a radius,  adding  continually,  year  after  year,  to  the  accumula- 
tions of  detritus.  Thus  a portion  of  a flat  cone  is  formed,  having  its  apex 
at  the  mouth  of  the  ravine.  At  the  foot  of  mountain  ranges  these  alluvial 
cones  are  formed  at  the  mouth  of  every  ravine,  and  are  sometimes  so  near 
together  that  they  intersect  each  other,  or  become  confluent.  They  are 
composed  of  rudely  stratified  materials,  ranging  in  size  or  grain  from  fine 
silt  and  sand  to  rounded  stones  of  several  hundredweight,  and  occasionally 
a block  of  a ton  or  more  may  be  seen  near  the.  apex  of  the  cone.  In 
regions  where  the  rocks  are  soft  and  readily  disintegrated  the  stones  are 


136  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


more  worn,  less  in  number,  and  smaller  in  size,  and  this  is  the  case  generally 
with  unaltered  sedimentary  rocks.  But  in  valleys  running  #mong  volcanic 
ranges,  the  much  greater  hardness  and  durability  of  the  materials  preserve 
them  from  disintegration,  and  the  stones  are  more  numerous,  larger,  and 
less  worn  by  attrition,  composing  indeed  a very  large  proportion  of  the 
bulk  of  the  alluvial  cones.  A large  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Sevier  lies 
in  the  midst  of  a volcanic  region,  and  its  sides  are  everywhere  flanked  with 
these  alluvial  cones,  which  are  very  stony  and  gravelly.  The  lower  portion 
of  the  Sevier  is  in  a country  made  of  sedimentary  beds,  and  though  the 
alluvial  cones  are  equally  common,  they  consist  of  finer  material,  and  are 
less  burdened  with  stones. 

The  Panguitch  Valley  is  between  volcanic  plateaus,  and  most  of  its 
area  consists  of  alluvial  cone  land,  which  is  no  doubt  fertile  wherever  the 
stones  and  rubble  are  not  sufficient  to  prevent  plowing  and  planting,  but 
this  difficulty  must  render  it  at  least  very  undesirable.  There  is,  however, 
a large  area  of  land  of  another  description  in  Panguitch  Valley,  composed 
of  the  finest  silt  brought  down  by  the  gentler  current  of  the  river  itself, 
and  deposited  within  its  own  basin.  This  is  good  bottom  land,  and  the 
amount  of  it  I estimate  at  not  less  than  7,000  acres.  It  has  already  been 
remarked  that  Panguitch  Valley  stands  at  an  altitude  above  6,000  feet, 
and  is  not  free  from  danger  of  summer  frosts.  These  have  been  known  to 
destroy  or  seriously  injure  the  grain,  though  in  a majority  of  years  crops 
will  no  doubt  be  safely  harvested.  Whether  the  danger  is  such  as  to 
make  agriculture  unremunerative  in  the  long  run  experience  can  alone 
demonstrate. 

Following  the  South  Fork  of  the  Sevier  downward  through  the 
Panguitch  canons,  the  next  important  agricultural  area  is  Circle  Valley. 
This  is  a broad,  nearly  circular  area,  situated  in  the  midst  of  scenery  of  the 
most  magnificent  description.  Upon  the  east  and  west  sides  rise  those 
gigantic  cliffs  which  are  the  peculiar  feature  of  the  scenery  of  this  elevated 
region,  looking  down  upon  the  valley  below  from  altitudes  of  4,000  to 
5,000  feet.  This  valley  also  has  upon  its  sides  long  sloping  areas  of 
stony  alluvial  cones,  full  of  blocks  of  trachyte  and  basalt  washed  down 
from  the  cliffs  above.  It  has  also  a large  area  of  arable  land.  There  is 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER.  137 


in  addition,  a certain  area  of  sandy  land  of  an  inferior  degree  of  excellence. 
The  area  of  best  bottom  land  will  probably  reach  as  high  as  6,000  acres. 
In  this  area  there  is  probably  very  little  danger  from  early  frosts,  as  the 
6,Of.O  feet  contour  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  valley,  and,  as  already 
stated,  the  areas  which  lie  within  this  limit  are  reasonably  safe  from  this 
occurrence.  At  the  north  end  of  Circle  Valley  we  find  the  junction  of  the 
two  main  forks  of  the  Sevier  River.  From  the  junction  the  main  stream 
runs  northward  for  nearly  20  miles,  and  throughout  this  entire  stretch 
there  is  but  little  arable  land.  Upon  both  sides  of  the  river  there  are  long 
alluvial  slopes,  made  up  of  stony  materials  and  coarse  gravels,  through 
which  a plow  could  scarcely  be  driven.  A portion  of  the  way  the  river 
runs  between  rocks  and  low  cliffs  and  in  abrupt  canons,  cutting  through 
old  trachyte  and  basaltic  outflows.  Reaching  Marysvale,  we  find  a suffi- 
cient area  for  three  or  four  good  sized  farms,  consisting  of  bottom  land  of 
the  finest  quality,  which  can  be  watered  either  from  the  Sevier  River  itself 
or  from  two  considerable  affluents  which  come  roaring  down  out  of  the 
Beaver  Mountains.  North  of  Marysvale  is  a barrier  thrown  across  the 
valley,  consisting  of  rugged  hills  of  rhyolitic  rocks,  through  which  the  river 
lias  cut  a deep  canon  ; but  agriculture  in  any  portion  of  this  barrier  is  out 
of  the  question.  The  river  emerges  from  it  at  the  head  of  what  may  be 
called  its  main  or  lower  valley,  near  the  Mormon  settlement  called  Joseph 
City.  From  this  point  northward  we  find  what  must  undoubtedly  become 
the  great  agricultural  area  of  southern  Utah.  It  is  a magnificent  valley, 
nowhere  less  than  5 miles  in  width,  and  at  least  60  miles  in  length,  with 
abrupt  mountain  walls  on  either  side,  and  almost  the  whole  of  its  soil 
consisting  of  alluvial  cones,  and  susceptible  of  a high  degree  of  cultivation. 
The  limit  of  the  amount  of  land  in  this  valley  which  can  be  irrigated  is 
measured  by  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be  found  to  turn  upon  it. 
The  western  side  of  the  valley  is  flanked  by  abrupt  walls  of  sedimentaiy 
rocks.  As  I have  before  stated,  the  alluvial  cones  which  find  their  origin 
in  the  degradation  of  these  sedimentary  walls  are  invariably  composed  of 
finer  materials  than  those  which  come  from  the  breaking  up  of  volcanic 
rocks.  The  soil,  therefore,  is  much  more  readily  plowed  and  planted  than 
the  corresponding  cones  farther  up  the  river.  The  surface  of  these  cones, 

18  1 B 


138  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


moreover,  is  coated  with  a thick  layer  of  fine  loam,  and  it  is  not  until 
penetrated  to  a considerable  depth  that  we  come  upon  a coarser  material. 
This  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Sevier  has  been  under  cultivation  for  more 
than  eight  years.  The  art  of  irrigation  has  also  reached  a certain  stage  of 
advancement,  at  which  it  can  be  studied  with  some  interest.  A canal  of 
sufficient  magnitude  to  carry  the  entire  body  of  the  water  of  the  Sevier 
during  the  dry  season  has  been  run  for  a distance  of  8 miles,  and  is 
used  for  irrigating  the  large  grain  fields  which  lie  around  Richfield ; and,  as 
irrigation  is  now  conducted,  the  entire  flow  of  the  stream  is  turned  through 
this  canal  after  having  been  employed  for  irrigating  the  various  fields, 
which  extend  for  the  distance  of  nearly  7 miles.  The  total  amount  of 
irrigable  land  which  may  be  found  between  Joseph  City  on  the  south  and 
the  point  where  the  Sevier  leaves  its  proper  valley,  65  miles  to  the  north- 
ward, cannot  be  much  less  than  90,000  acres.  The  limit  of  irrigation 
throughout  this  entire  valley  is  the  limit  of  the  water  supply. 

There  is  one  other  valley  to  which  we  must  advert,  namely,  the  valley 
of  the  San  Pete.  This  is  fully  equal  in  fertility  and  in  the  convenience  of 
every  element  connected  with  irrigation  to  the  best  part  of  the  main  valley 
of  the  Sevier.  The  San  Pete  is  a stream  of  considerable  magnitude,  and 
experience  has  shown  that  it  is  probably  capable,  under  a more  improved 
system  of  irrigation  than  that  now  in  use,  of  watering  the  greater  portion 
of  its  valley.  The  cultivable  acreage  of  the  San  Pete  Valley  is  about 
55,000  acres,  provided  the  whole  could  be  watered. 

The  quantity  of  water  carried  by  the  Sevier  will  now  be  considered 
This,  of  course,  is  highly  variable  from  month  to  month.  The  time  for 
measurement,  if  the  true  irrigating  capacity  of  the  stream  is  to  be  con- 
sidered, should  be  that  time  at  which  the  ratio  of  water  in  the  stream  to 
the  amount  required  is  smallest.  At  different  stages  of  growth  of  the  crops 
the  amount  of  water  required  differs  considerably.  The  largest  amount  is 
needed  about  the  time  the  seeds  of  the  grain  begin  to  fill  out.  Ordinarily 
this  is  in  the  latter  part  of  July  and  early  in  August  throughout  the  lower 
and  most  extensive  portion  of  the  valley,  and  a week  later  in  the  upper 
portions.  At  this  season  the  water  is  not  at  its  minimum.  There  is  a 
gradual  diminution  of  the  flow  during  July,  but  the  great  shrinkage  of  the 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER, 


139 


stream  occurs  during'  the  middle  of  August,  just  after,  or  sometimes  even 
during,  those  irrigations  in  which  the  greatest  amount  is  required.  The 
critical  period  of  the  crops  occurs,  therefore,  just  before,  and  sometimes 
dangerously  near,  the  period  of  rapid  decline  in  the  water  supply.  It  will 
therefore  be  evident  that  it  is  not  a very  easy  matter  to  determine  the  exact 
stage  of  water  which  can  serve  as  a criterion  of  the  irrigating  capacity.  My 
own  measurements,  however,  were  hardly  a matter  of  choice,  but  were 
made  at  the  most  advantageous  period  which  could  be  selected  without 
interfering  with  the  primary  objects  of  the  expedition. 

The  Sevier  was  measured  at  the  junction  of  the  two  main  forks,,  at  the 
north  end  of  Circle  Valley,  on  the  6th  and  7th  of  July.  The  method  adopted 
was  first  to  find  a section  of  the  water  at  a given  point  by  soundings  and 
by  actual  measurement  of  the  width  of  the  water  surfaces,  and  measuring 
the  surface  velocity  by  means  of  floats.-  The  most  probable  mean  result 
of  several  measurements  was  found  to  be  410  cubic  feet  per  second  for  the 
East  Fork,  and  450  feet  per  second  for  the  South  Fork,  or  a total  of  860  feet. 

While  this  measurement  was  made  the  South  Fork  was  being  drawn 
upon  above  for  the  watering  of  about  1,100  acres  near  Panguitch,  35  miles 
farther  up  the  stream,  and  also  for  watering  about  600  acres  in  Circle  Val- 
ley, about  3 to  4 miles  above.  The  amount  of  water  used  in  Circle  Valley 
was  probably  greater  than  that  at  Panguitch,  since  the  method  employed 
was  much  more  wasteful,  and  no  provision  made  for  returning  the  tail 
water  to  the  stream.  On  the  other  hand,  a large  proportion  of  the  tail  water 
from  both  places  finds  its  way  back  to  the  .channel  in  spite  of  waste,  but 
how  much  it  is  impossible  to  conjecture.  I think,  however,  that  75  cubic 
feet  per  second  would  cover  the  loss  from  these  sources. 

Below  the  point  of  measurement  the  Sevier  receives  the  following 
affluents:  At  Van  Buren’s  ranch  is  a cluster  of  very  large  springs,  fur- 
nishing about  55  cubic  feet  per  second.  Between  Van  Buren’s  and  Marys- 
vale  are  three  streams,  yielding  together  about  30  feet,  and  Bullion  Creek 
at  Marysvale  carries  about  40  feet.  There  is  still  another  affluent  at 
Marysvale  with  about  30  feet.  Finally,  Clear  Creek,  north  of  Marysvale 
Canon,  gives  about  45  feet,  making  the  total  contributions  between  the 
junction  of  the  forks  and  Joseph  City  about  200  feet. 


140  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


At  Monroe  a stream  issues  from  the  Sevier  table,  and  is  used  for  the 
irrigation  of  the  field  cultivated  by  that  settlement.  Its  flow  is  estimated 
at  40  feet  in  the  middle  of  July.  At  Richfield,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valley,  is  a stream  coming  from  the  Pavant,  with  a flow  of  about  20  feet, 
and  at  Glencove  a stream  of  25  feet.  At  Salina  is  a large  tributary  issuing 
from  a great  canon  through  the  north  end  of  the  Sevier  Plateau,  and  its 
measurement  indicated  a flow  of  165  feet.  The  total  between  Monroe  and 
Salina,  inclusive,  would  thus  reach  250  feet,  to  which  might  be  added 
some  smaller  tributaries,  not  specifically  mentioned,  amounting  perhaps  to 
10  feet;  giving  a total  of  260  feet.  Adding  this  to  the  tributaries  between 
the  upper  forks  and  Joseph  City,  and  to  the  main  river  itself,  we  have,  as 
the  total  above  Gunnison,  1,320  feet.  This  estimate  being  for  the  early 
part  of  July,  and  obviously  largely  in  excess  of  the  amount  which  is 
available  at  the  critical  period,  in  the  last  week  of  that  month  and  the  first 
week  in  August,  what  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  diminution  of 
supply  during  the  month  of  July  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  smaller 
tributaries,  as  a rule,  shrink  much  more  than  the  larger.  Those  which  enter 
the  stream  lower  down  decline  more  during  July  than  those  which  join  it 
farther  up.  Taken  altogether,  I am  satisfied  that  it  would  be  unsafe  to 
estimate  the  irrigating  capacity  in  the  first  week  of  August  at  more  than 
60  per  cent,  of  that  found  in  the  first  week  of  July,  and  I regard  50  per 
cent,  as  a much  more  probable  estimate.  For  want  of  a better  one,  1 adopt 
it,  and  this  gives  the  estimated  irrigating  capacity  of  the  Sevier  and  its 
tributaries  above  the  junction  of  the  San  Pete  at  660  cubic  feet  per  second 
during  the  critical  period. 

The  water  supply  in  the  San  Pete  Valley  was  measured  by  Mr. 
Renshawe  during  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  found  by  him  to  be  as 
follows : 

Volume  of  flowing  water,  in  cubic  feet  per  second , of  streams  in  San  Pete  Valley. 


Pleasant  Creek 28 

Ephraim  Creek ; 28 

Manti  Creek... 28 

Springtown  Creek 14 

Fail-view  Creek 10 

Wales  Creek 0 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER.  141 


Feet 


Total. . 234* 


This  estimate  is  also  liable  to  reduction,  being  undoubtedly  a little  in 
excess  of  the  amount  available  at  the  critical  period.  This  reduction  may 
be  as  great  as  15  per  cent.,  which  would  leave  very  closely  200  cubic  feet 
as  the  water  supply  of  the  San  Pete  Valley,  which,  added  to  the  total  of 
the  Sevier  above  Gunnison,  gives  for  the  whole  drainage  system  of  the 
Sevier  River  a water  supply  of  860  feet  per  second  at  the  time  when  the 
greatest  amount  is  required. 

The  next  factor  to  be  inquired  into  is  the  amount  of  land  which  a cubic 
foot  per  second  of  water  can  irrigate.  This  is,  of  course,  highly  variable, 
depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  economy  with  which  the 
water  is  applied,  and  the  frequency  of  the  irrigations.  New  lands  freshly 
broken  require  much  more  water  than  the  older  ones  which  have  been 
planted  and  watered  for  several  years  ; and  in  fact  the  quantity  diminishes 
with  each  season  for  a long  term  of  years.  In  the  San  Pete  Valley,  which 
has  been  longest  cultivated,  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of  water  applied  to 
the  oldest  lands  has  not  yet  ceased,  though  some  fields  have  been  cultivated 
with  regularity  since  1857.  The  fresh  soils  are  highly  porous  and  absorp- 
tive, requiring  a large  quantity  of  water  for  their  irrigation,  and  not  retain- 
ing this  moisture  well  under  the  great  evaporative  power  of  a dry  and  hot 
atmosphere.  With  successive  irrigations,  the  pores  of  the  soil  are  gradually 
closed  and  the  earth  is  slowly  compacted  by  the  infiltration  of  impalpable 
silt  brought  by  the  irrigating  waters.  It  absorbs  water  much  more  slowly, 
and  retains  it  a much  longer  time.  There  is,  however,  a check  to  this 
increased  irrigating  power,  arising  from  a wasteful  mode  of  agriculture.  It 
has  not  been  the  practice  to  employ  fertilizers,  nor  any  other  conservative 
means  of  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  yield  of  the  crops 
growing  smaller,  the  old  lands  are  frequently  abandoned,  and  fresh  adjoin- 
ing lands  are  broken,  planted,  and  watered.  It  has  been  the  practice  to 


142  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


cut  the  straw,  which  is  never  returned  as  mulch ; and,  as  there  is  but  little 
rotation  in  crops,  the  result  can  be  easily  comprehended.  So  long  as  new 
land  costs  nothing  but  the  labor  to  clear  of  the  Artemisia  or  sage  brush, 
there  is  always  the  tendency  to  invade  it  as  rapidly  as  the  old  lands  show 
signs  of  fatigue.  Thus  the  waters  are  constantly  irrigating  every  year  a 
large  proportion  of  new  land,  and  the  consumption  of  water  is  correspond- 
ingly great. 

A serious  loss  of  water  and  fertility  is  produced  by  any  method  of 
irrigation  which  employs  more  water  than  is  just  sufficient  to  saturate  the 
soil.  Whatever  water  runs  off  from  a field  carries  witli  it  great  quantities 
of  mud  and  fine  silt,  together  with  the  most  precious  elements  of  fertility. 
These  elements  are  the  soluble  alkaline  salts  and  organic  manner  which  are 
readily  taken  up  by  the  water,  and  once  removed  are  not  speedily  restored. 
A field  which  is  so  irrigated  that  a large  surplus  of  water  is  continually 
running  from  the  tail  ditches  during  the  flow  will  rapidly  deteriorate  in 
fertility.  But  a field  which  receives  water  which  is  allowed  to  stand  until 
it  has  soaked  into  the  earth,  without  any  surplus  passing  into  the  tail 
ditches,  will  increase  in  fertility.  These  irrigating  waters  bring  with  them 
a sufficiency  of  plant  food  to  compensate,  and  more  too,  for  the  drain  upon 
the  soil  caused  by  the  harvest ; but  they  will  carry  off  more  than  they  bring 
if  they  are  permitted  to  run  over  the  field  and  escape  from  it,  instead  of 
being  caught  and  held  until  they  are  absorbed.  It  is  not  always  prac- 
ticable to  attain  this  exact  distribution  of  water,  and  many  cases  occur 
where  great  expense  and  labor  might  be  required  to  arrange  the  ditches 
and  fields  in  this  manner.  Ordinarily,  it  is  cheaper  to  throw  away  old  land 
and  take  up  new  than  to  improve  the  system  of  irrigation,  and  there  are 
many  fields  in  the  valley  of  the  Sevier  which  have  been  abandoned  because 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been  washed  out  by  a reckless  method  of  irriga- 
tion. Connected  with  this  is  another  source  of  waste,  arising  from  very 
unequal  requirements  of  contiguous  areas,  in  consequence  of  which  many 
lands,  especially  old  ones,  are  liable  to  be  excessively  watered.  When  a 
community  farms  a large  number  of  small  fields,  using  water  from  the  same 
canals,  it  is  usually  impossible  so  to  regulate  the  distribution  of  the  privilege 
that  each  field  will  receive  the  exact  amount  it  needs.  Some  fields  can 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER. 


143 


remain  unwatered  much  longer  than  others,  and  the  tendency  always  is  to 
get  as  much  water  as  possible — each  farmer  fearing  a deficiency  of  water 
and  wasting  its  surplus.  Experience  on  the  part  of  the  watermasters  and 
a more  and  more  settled  habit  in  the  lands  themselves  gradually  diminish 
this  source  of  loss  and  create  economy.  Far  better  results,  therefore,  may 
ordinarily  be  anticipated  in  old  lands  than  in  new.  Better  results,  also,  are 
found  where  circumstances  render  difficult  or  impracticable  the  abandon- 
ment of  old  fields  for  new,  and  this  is  ordinarily  in  those  portions  where 
the  water  is  nearly  or  quite  sufficient  for  all  the  irrigable  land,  and  where 
all  the  irrigable  land  is  taken  up. 

Recurring,  then,  to  the  inquiry  as  to  the  amount  of  land  which  a cubic 
foot  per  second  of  running  water  will  irrigate,  this  area  is  in  many  of  the 
new  lands  as  low  as  40  acres,  and  it  seldom  exceeds  80  acres  with  the  old 
lands.  Probably  there  are  very  few  regions  in  the  world  where  the  demand 
of  the  soil  for  water  is  so  great  as  here  where  the  supply  is  so  small.  In 
California  a cubic  foot  of  water  is  said  to  be  capable  of  irrigating  more  than 
a hundred  acres,  in  India  200,  and  in  Spain  and  Italy  a much  larger  area. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  It  is  the  direct  consequence  of  the  extreme  aridity 
of  the  climate  of  Utah.  The  irrigating  capacity  of  the  unit  of  water  is 
even  less  in  the  southern  counties  of  Utah  than  in  those  around  Great  Salt 
Lake.  Mr.  Gilbert’s  estimate  of  100  acres  for  this  last  locality  being 
accepted  as  the  best  that  can  be  hoped  for,  it  will  not  be  rating  the  factor 
too  low  to  say  that  80  acres  is  the  best  that  can  be  hoped  for  in  the  valley 
of  the  Sevier.  The  present  factor  will  not,  I am  convinced,  have  a higher 
average  value  than  50  acres. 

The  total  acreage,  therefore,  which  can  be  irrigated  in  the  drainage 
system  of  the  Sevier  by  the  present  system  of  watering  and  of  agriculture 
may  be  estimated  at  about  43,000  acres,  and  the  greatest  improvements  and 
economies  in  the  system  of  farming  and  watering  cannot,  with  the  present 
water  supply,  be  expected  to  raise  the  irrigable  area  above  70,000  acres. 


144  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Nevertheless,  I am  persuaded  that  it  will  be  practicable  to  extend  the 
possibility  of  irrigation  by  an  increase  of  water  supply  to  a degree  sufficient 
to  irrigate  every  acre  of  the  main  valley  of  the  Sevier  which  can  be 
reached  by  canals,  and  which  is  also  fit,  for  cultivation.  It  is  by  the 
method  of  artificial  reservoirs.  There  is  probably  no  region  in  the  world 
more  admirably  suited  to  the  easy,  cheap,  and  efficient  application  of  this 
method  than  this  veiy  region  drained  by  the  Sevier  River.  The  sources 
of  this  river  are  found  at  high  altitudes,  but  these  high  places  are  not 
mountains  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  great  plateaus  with  broad  summits. 
These  table  tops  have  vast  numbers  of  large  basins  broad  enough  for  great 
ponds,  which  are  now  drained  by  narrow  gorges  cut  through  volcanic 
sheets  and  leading  down  to  lower  levels.  These  gorges  are  in  most  cases 
narrow  canons,  which,  being  once  barred  across,  will  dam  the  waters  above 
them.  I could  not  select  a better  example  than  the  following : About  If) 
miles  southwest  of  the  town  of  Panguitch  is  a broad  basin,  the  central  part 
of  which  is  occupied  by  a shallow  lake,  about  1 j miles  long  and  nearly  a 
mile  wide,  called  Panguitch  Lake.  Its  altitude  is  about  8,200  feet.  It  is 
completely  surrounded  with  barriers,  nowhere  less  than  100  feet  in  height, 
and  finds  its  drainage  through  a narrow  cleft  on  the  northeast  side.  It, 
receives  the  influx  of  two  fine  streams,  which  in  May  and  J une  must  carry 
heavy  floods  of  water  from  the  lofty  rim  and  broad  watershed  of  the 
Panguitch  Plateau  lying  to  the  westward.  Even  in  August  their  united 
flow  must  reach  50  feet  per  second.  By  throwing  a dam  30  feet  high  and 
50  or  60  feet  long  across  the  outlet  between  its  walls  of  solid  trachyte,  a 
lake  would  be  formed  with  an  area  of  6 or  7 square  miles.  There  are 
many  such  basins  upon  the  Panguitch  Plateau,  and  it  would  be  a low 
estimate  to  say  that  it  would  be  possible,  at  comparatively  small  expense, 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER. 


145 


to  create  30  or  40  square  miles  of  lake  surface,  with  an  average  depth  of 
20  feet,  upon  that  plateau  alone  The  precipitation  upon  its  surface  would 
be  more  than  sufficient  to  fill  these  lakes  every  year.  A dam  across  the 
upper  part  of  East  Fork  Canon  would  create  a lake  behind  it  which  might 
have  an  area  of  12  to  15  square  miles.  Numerous  reservoirs  could  be 
created  at  small  expense  in  Grass  Valley,  upon  the  Fish  Lake  Plateau,  and 
upon  the  Sevier  Plateau,  and  in  those  valleys  which  are  drained  by  Salina 
Creek  and  its  tributaries.  The  Sevier  River  itself  can  be  cheaply  dammed 
at  several  gorges  and  made  to  overflow  swampy  flats  above — notably  at 
the  head  of  Marys  vale  Canon,  and  again  just  north  of  Van  Buren’s  ranch. 
Other  things  equal,  it  would  be  better,  as  well  as  cheaper,  to  build  dams  at 
higher  levels,  since  the  evaporation  is  much  less  there  than  in  the  valleys, 
and  the  natural  facilities  for  creating  lakes  are  also  greater. 

In  this  way,  I believe  it  to  be  practicable  to  reserve  a store  of  water 
sufficient  to  irrigate  every  acre  of  ground  in  the  Sevier  Valley,  which  is 
by  the  nature  of  its  soil  and  its  situation  suitable  for  irrigation.  It  may  be 
noted,  too,  that  the  “tank  system”  thus  suggested  would  not  interfere 
with  or  take  the  place  of  the  present  system,  but  would  be  supplementary 
to  it.  The  streams  would  in  June  and  early  July  run  through  the  lakes 
and  over  the  dams,  yielding  about  as  much  water  as  they  now  yield  in 
those  months,  and  the  reservoirs  would  not  have  to  be  drawn  upon  before 
the  middle  of  July. 

A very  interesting  subject  connected  with  the  peculiar  conditions  of 
agriculture  in  the  west  is  the  origin  and  distribution  of  alkaline  salts  in  the 
soil.  In  moist  regions  such  occurrences  are  rare.  They  are  peculiar  to 
arid  regions,  and,  in  truth,  very  few  arid  regions  fail  to  exhibit  them.  The 
cause  in  a general  way  is  well  known.  The  small  amount  of  rain  which 
falls  during  the  wet  season  penetrates  deeply  into  the  earth,  where  it 
gradually  takes  up  such  soluble  salts  as  it  encounters  there.  During  the 
dry  season  which  follows,  there  is  always  going  on  an  evaporation  from 
the  surface,  however  dry  it  may  appear  to  the  senses.  It  is  a mistake  to 
suppose  that  because  the  saline  soil  is  as  dry  as  ashes  no  evaporation  is 
in  progress.  In  many  cases  this  may  be  true ; but  often  in  the  most  arid 
regions  there  are  many  localities  where  the  water  collects  far  below  the 
19  A R 


146  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


immediate  surface.  By  capillary  action,  this  water  always  tends  to  diffuse 
itself  throughout  the  loose  materials  which  make  up  the  overlying  soils. 
As  fast  as  it  is  evaporated  at  the  surface,  more  water  from  below  rises  by 
capillary  action  to  take  its  place.  When  the  air  is  exceedingly  dry,  as  it 
invariably  is  in  summer  throughout  the  whole  Rocky  Mountain  Region  at 
moderate  altitudes,  the  evaporative  power  becomes  so  great  and  extends 
to  such  a depth  below  the  immediate  surface,  that  we  are  unable  to  recog- 
nize the  slightest  traces  of  moisture  indicating  that  evaporation  is  going  on 
The  water  which  may  have  accumulated  beneath  has  gradually  risen  by 
percolation  through  the  interstices  of  the  unconsolidated  materials  of  the 
soil,  bringing  with  it  whatever  soluble  salts  it  may  have  taken  into  solution 
during  its  sojourn  beneath  the  surface.  These  soluble  salts  are  left  at  the 
surface  by  the  final  evaporation  of  the  water,  and,  as  the  process  is  contin- 
uous until  the  reservoir  beneath  is  exhausted,  the  salts  accumulate.  Contrast 
this  now  with  the  action  going  on  in  a moist  country.  Here  the  copious 
waters  wash  the  soils  as  rapidly  as  the  salts  come  up  from  below,  and  carry 
them  in  solution  into  the  drainage  channels.  During  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  the  movement  of  the  waters  is  partly  from  the  surface  downward 
into  the  subterranean  water  courses,  from  which  they  emerge  in  springs ; 
partly  by  surface  drainages  into  rills,  and  thence  into  living  streams.  By 
both  movements,  any  tendency  to  accumulate  soluble  salts  at  the  surface 
during  the  relatively  brief  periods  of  dryness  is  prevented.  In  a dry 
country  the  periods  of  dryness  are  very  much  longer,  and  the  rainfall  is 
seldom  sufficient  to  wash  the  accumulated  salts  from  the  soil.  There  is, 
however,  usually  a limit  to  this  accumulation,  since  at  long  intervals  rains 
occur  sufficient  to  remove  a large  portion  of  the  salts.  The  difference 
between  a dry  and  wet  country  in  this  respect  is  therefore  one  of  degree 
rather  than  of  kind.  In  a dry  country  the  periods  of  accumulation  of 
salts  at  the  surface  are  long  and  continuous,  while  the  washings  of  the  soil 
are  rare  and  imperfect.  In  a wet  country  the  periods  of  accumulation  are 
short  and  rare,  while  the  washings  are  frequent,  copious,  and  thorough. 

The  saline  materials  vary  widely  in  character  and  constitution.  They 
are,  however,  chiefly  salts  of  soda,  lime,  potash,  and  magnesia.  Sometimes 
they  exist  in  the  condition  of  chlorides,  sometimes  of  carbonates,  and 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER. 


147 


sometimes  of  sulphates.  The  reactions  from  which  they  are  derived  are 
many,  and  it  will  be  proper  here  to  give  only  a few  illustrations.  A portion 
of  the  salts  of  magnesia  and  soda  are  derived  from  the  decomposition,  by 
atmospheric  influences,  of  volcanic,  granitic,  and  other  crystalline  rocks. 
Where  these  materials  exist  in  the  form  of  felspar,  hornblende,  and  pyroxene, 
the  great  decomposing  agent  is  water  charged  with  the  carbonic  acid  of 
the  atmosphere,  by  the  action  of  which  soda,  magnesia,  and  lime  are,  with 
inconceivable  slowness,  dissolved  out  of  the  constituents  of  these  rocks. 
There  is  no  stream,  however  pure  it  may  apparently  be,  which  does  not 
carry  more  or  less  of  chlorides  and  carbonates  in  solution.  The  sulphates 
are  derived  mainly  from  subterranean  sources.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Region,  one  of  the  most  common  forms  of  sulphate  is  found  very  abun- 
dantly in  the  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous,  Triassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary 
Ages,  in  the  forms  of  gypsum  and  selenite,  which  are  sulphates  of  lime 
Whenever  waters  containing  carbonate  of  soda  are  filtered  through  strata 
containing  these  sulphates,  a double  decomposition  takes  place,  by  which 
carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  soda  are  formed.  The  carbonate  of 
lime  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  while  the  sulphate  of  soda  is  highly 
so,  and  it  is  well  known  that  waters  emanating  from  the  sedimentary  rocks 
just  spoken  of  are  very  frequently  highly  charged  with  it.  Such,  doubtless, 
is  the  origin  of  this  mineral  in  the  so  called  alkaline  waters  of  the  west, 
and  of  all  the  soluble  minerals  which  pass  under  the  name  of  alkali  it  is 
one  of  the  most  common.  Carbonate  of  soda  is  also  abundant  in  the 
soils.  It  is  frequently  found  in  the  summer  time,  coating  the  surface  of 
bottom  lands  which  earlier  in  the  season  have  been  submerged  by  the 
augmented  streams.  Common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  is  even  more 
abundant  than  the  sulphate.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that  many  of  the 
sedimentary  rocks,  particularly  those  of  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic  Age, 
contain  an  abundance  of  it,  and  there  are  many  localities  in  the  west 
where  a very  fair  article  of  common  salt  is  obtained  by  the  lixiviation 
of  the  detritus  of  the  red  Triassic  rocks.  Incrustations  of  these  soluble 
saline  materials  occur  most  abundantly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  and 
in  the  bottom  lands.  This  may  at  first  seem  somewhat  strange,  but  it  is 
susceptible  of  a ready  explanation.  In  order  that  these  salts  may  accumu- 


148  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


late  at  the  surface,  there  must  be  going  on  continually  a slow  transmission 
of  moisture  from  under  ground  upward,  and  since  a continuous  supply 
of  water  is  more  frequently  found  in  the  bottom  lands  than  elsewhere,  it 
follows  that  the  conditions  of  these  accumulations  are  here  more  frequently 
fulfilled.  They  may,  however,  and  do  occur  at  localities  which  probably 
contain  subterranean  reservoirs  of  water,  which  are  annually  filled  during 
the  wet  season.  Sometimes  these  salts  are  so  abundant  that  the  land 
requires  a thorough  washing  before  it  is  fit  for  agriculture,  and  the  Mor- 
mons have  on  several  occasions,  when  founding  settlements,  been  obliged  to 
allow  the  waters  from  their  ditches  to  leach  the  land  for  many  months,  and 
in  one  or  two  cases  for  two,  and  even  three,  years,  before  a good  crop  could 
be  raised.  There  is  no  difficulty,  however,  in  removing  any  quantity  of 
these  readily  soluble  salts  from  the  soil,  provided  this  leaching  process  be 
continued  long  enough ; and  it  is  usually  found  that  lands  which  were 
originally  highly  akaline  become,  when  reclaimed  from  their  alkalinity, 
among  the  most  fertile. 

There  yet  remains  for  mention  a number  of  small  areas  served  by 
some  minor  streams  in  southwestern  Utah.  These  little  creeks  head  in 
the  mountains,  but  are  soon  lost  in  the  deserts  of  that  arid  and  torrid  region, 
none  of  their  waters  finding  their  way  to  the  ocean.  The  greater  number 
of  them  belong  to  the  drainage  basin  of  Sevier  Lake.  In  each  case  the 
water  supply  is  small,  and  inadequate  to  supply  the  available  land.  In 
nearly  every  case  the  competence  of  the  supply  has  been  determined  in 
the  most  practical  way — by  the  operations  of  settlers  ; but  some  allowance 
has  been  made  for  an  increase  of  the  irrigable  land  by  the  more  economic 
use  of  the  water.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  the  construction  of  better 
waterways,  and  by  more  carefully  flowing  the  water  over  the  lands. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  SEVIER. 


149 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  extent  of  these  areas : 


CHAPTEE  IX. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THAT  PORTION  OF  UTAH 
DRAINED  BY  THE  COLORADO  RIVER  AND  ITS 
TRIBUTARIES. 

By  A.  H.  Thompson. 

That  portion  of  Utah  drained  by  the  Colorado  River  and  its  tributaries 
belongs  to  a great  basin  limited  on  the  north  by  the  Uinta  Mountains  and 
on  the  west  by  the  high  plateaus  that  separate  the  drainage  of  the  Colorado 
from  that  of  the  salt  lakes  of  the  interior,  and  extending  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  Territory  on  the  east  and  south.  The  floor  of  this  basin  is  extremely 
rough,  being  broken  by  isolated  groups  of  rugged  mountains,  by  plateaus 
encircled  with  cliffs  of  almost  vertical  rock,  by  mesas  and  amphitheaters, 
and  huge  monumental  and  castellated  buttes.  Everywhere  the  surface  is 
cut  and  carved  with  a network  of  canons,  hundreds  and  often  thousands  of 
feet  in  depth 

The  main  channel  through  which  its  drainage  passes  to  the  sea  is  the 
Colorado,  and  its  proper  upper  continuation,  the  Green  River. 

The  principal  tributaries  to  these  streams  from  the  east  are  the  White, 
the  Grand,  and  the  San  Juan  Rivers — all  rising  in  the  high  mountains  east 
of  the  Territory  and  flowing  in  a general  westerly  course — the  White  enter- 
ing the  Green  River,  the  Grand  uniting  with  the  Green  to  form  the  Colorado, 
and  the  San  Juan  entering  the  latter  about  125  miles  below  the  junction 
of  the  Grand  and  the  Green.  The  Virgin,  the  Kanab,  the  Paria,  the 
Escalante,  the  Fremont,  the  San  Rafael,  the  Price,  the  Minnie  Maud;  the 
Uinta,  and  Ashley  Fork  are  the  principal  tributaries  from  the  west. 

This  portion  of  Utah  is  but  sparsely  settled  by  white  people,  the  only 

150 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE. 


151 


permanent  locations  being  in  the  southwestern  part,  and  in  the  Uinta  Valley 
at  the  north.  Information  concerning  its  agricultural  resources  is  limited, 
being  confined,  except  in  relation  to  the  localities  before  mentioned,  to  data 
collected  by  the  geographical  and  geological  parties  of  this  survey.  Many 
of  the  streams  have  been  visited  but  a single  time,  and  different  streams  at 
widely  different  dates,  during  a field  season.  Often  the  exigencies  of  the 
survey  prevented  as  close  an  examination  into  the  flow  of  water,  and  the  loca- 
tion and  character  of  the  soil  of  the  arable  tracts,  as  was  desirable  ; yet,  on 
the  whole,  it  is  thought  that  the  data  collected  can  be  relied  upon  as  a very 
close  approximation. 

The  climate  of  the  basin  is  one  of  extreme  aridity.  The  prevailing 
wind  is  westerly.  The  high  plateaus  and  mountains  forming  the  western 
rim  of  the  basin  force  these  winds  up  to  an  altitude  above  the  sea  of  over 
10,000  feet,  and  thus  act  as  great  condensers  to  deprive  them  of  their 
moisture.  Flowing  down  from  the  higher  lands  into  the  warmer  regions 
below,  their  capacity  for  absorption  is  increased,  and  during  the  greater 
portion  of  the  year  the  winds  abstract  from  rather  than  add  to  the  humidity 
of  the  lower  altitudes.  But  little  is  known  concerning  the  actual  amount 
of  precipitation  of  moisture  within  the  basin.  Below  an  altitude  of  7,000 
feet  it  is  very  small,  probably  not  over  an  average  of  5 inches  yearly.  At 
higher  altitudes  it  is  much  greater,  probably  reaching  24  inches,  but  this  is 
mostly  during  the  winter  months  and  in  the  form  of  snow. 

The  elevation  of  the  region  under  consideration  is  frorft  2,500  feet  to 
11,500  feet  above  the  sea,  thus  giving  great  range  in  temperature.  In  the 
valleys  of  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  an  almost  subtropical  warmth  is 
experienced,  and  the  different  valleys  containing  arable  lands  we  pass  from 
these  by  insensible  gradations  to  those  where  frosts  occur  during  every 
month  in  the  year.  Generally,  the  limit  of  successful  cultivation  of  the  soil 
is  below  7,000  feet. 

In  this  portion  of  Utah  irrigation  is  essential  to  agriculture.  If  all 
the  single  acres  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  without  artificial  irrigation  were 
aggregated,  I do  not  believe  the  sum  would  reach  one-fourth  of  one  square 
mile,  and  every  foot  of  this  meager  amount  is  irrigated  naturally.  Springs 
are  of  infrequent  occurrence.  The  great  source  of  the  water  supply  is  the 


152  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


streams  fed  by  the  rains  and  snows  of  the  high  table  lands  and  mountains. 
All  these  streams  have  a rapid  fall  in  their  upper  courses,  and  are  here  often 
of  considerable  size ; but  upon  reaching  the  lower  and  more  level  country 
their  waters  are  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  porous  soil  and  evaporated  by 
the  higher  temperature  So  great  is  the  loss  from  these  causes  that  some 
streams  fail  to  reach  the  main  drainage  channel  during  the  warmer  months, 
and  all  are  greatly  shrunken  In  volume.  All  the  arable  lands — or  lands 
where  altitude,  slope  of  surface,  and  quality  of  soil  permit  successful  culti- 
vation, if  a supply  of  water  can  be  obtained,  and  from  which  lands  to 
irrigate,  or  irrigable  lands,  may  be  selected — are  in  the  valleys  adjacent  to 
the  streams.  Usually  this  area  in  many  valleys  is  in  excess  of  that  which 
the  water  in  the  streams  can  irrigate,  and  choice  in  the  location  of  lands  to 
cultivate  is  often  practicable.  In  this  report  I have  considered  irrigable 
lands  to  be  such  only  as  possess  all  the  necessary  qualifications  of  altitude, 
slope  of  surface,  and  fertility  of  soil,  and  have,  in  addition,  an  available 
supply  of  one  cubic  foot  of  water  per  second  for  each  hundred  acres.  The 
great  dissimilarity  between  the  valleys  makes  it  desirable  to  consider  the 
drainage  basin  of  each  separately,  in  respect  to  arable  lands,  irrigable  lands, 
volume  of  water,  and  practicability  of  increasing  this  supply  during  the 
irrigating  season. 

THE  VIRGIN  RIVER. 

This  stream  is  in  the  extreme  southwest  corner,  of  the  area  under  con- 
sideration. Its  branches  rise  in  the  Colob  Plateau,  at  altitudes  varying 
from  8,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  flows  in  a southwesterly  course, 
and  joins  the  Colorado  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Utah.  The  smaller 
creeks  draining  the  eastern  portion  of  the  plateau  unite,  after  descend- 
ing to  an  altitude  of  5,500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  form  what  is  called 
the  Pa-ru-nu-weap  Fork  of  the  Virgin.  At  and  below  the  junction  of 
these  creeks,  the  canon  valley  in  which  they  flow  widens  into  what  is 
known  as  Long  Valley.  There  a considerable  area  of  available  land  is 
found.  The  soil  is  excellent,  and  wherever  cultivated  yields  abundant 
crops.  Below  Long  Valley  the  stream  enters  Pa-ru-nu-weap  Canon,  and  is 
simply  a series  of  cascades  for  15  miles,  descending  in  this  distance  from 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE.  153 

5,000  to  3,500  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Emerging,  it  enters  the  valley  of 
the  Virgin.  This  valley  is  44  miles  in  length.  Its  upper  portion  is  only 
an  enlargement  of  the  canon,  in  which  small  areas  of  available  land  are 
found.  Its  lower  portion  is  a broader  valley,  much  broken  by  low,  basalt 
covered  mesas,  and  sharp  ridges  of  tilted  sedimentary  rocks.  In  the  upper 
portion  of  the  valley  the  river  receives  several  accessions,  the  principal  ones 
being  Little  Zion,  North  Fork,  La  Verkin,  and  Ash  Creeks.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Ash,  but  very  little  cultivable  land  is  found  along  these 
creeks.  Midway  in  the  valley  two  streams  enter,  coming  from  the  Pine 
Valley  Mountains  and  having  small  areas  of  irrigable  land  along  their  courses, 
and  near  the  foot  the  Santa  Clara  River  adds  its  water.  The  united  streams 
leave  the  valley  by  a deep  canon  cut  through  the  Beaver  Dam  Mountains. 
The  valley  of  the  Virgin  has  a lower  altitude  than  any  other  portion  of  Utah, 
and  a warmer  climate.  The  soil  of  the  arable  lands  is  usually  good,  and 
wherever  it  is  possible  to  irrigate  produces  abundant  crops  Some  little 
difficulty  is  occasionally  experienced  in  the  first  years  of  cultivation  from 
an  excess  of  alkaline  constituents  in  the  soil,  but  plentiful  applications  of 
water  soon  remove  this  difficulty,  and  these  lands  often  become  the  most 
productive.  No  reliable  data  concerning  the  amount  of  arable  land  in  the 
drainage  basin,  or  the  volume  of  water  carried  by  the  Virgin  River  and  its 
tributaries,  have  been  collected.  From  the  best  information  attainable,  the 
amount  of  land  actually  irrigated  in  1875,  is  placed  at  eleven  square  miles 
This  conclusion  is  based  in  the  main  upon  returns  made  in  1875  to  the 
Deseret  Agricultural  and  Manufacturing  Society,  the  amount  under  culti- 
vation in  Long  Valley  having  been  ascertained  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Renshawe,  of 
this  survey.  To  irrigate  this,  all  the  water  in  most  of  the  tributary  streams 
is  used,  but  a large  surplus  remains  in  the  main  river.  The  amount  of  arable 
land  is  far  in-  excess  of  the  water  supply,  but  some  considerable  expense 
for  dams  and  canals  would  be  necessary  to  utilize  the  whole  amount. 

It  is  probable  that  a portion  of  the  Virgin  River  can  be  used  to 
advantage  below  the  Beaver  Dam  Mountains  in  Nevada,  and  that  a 
sufficient  amount  to  irrigate  25  square  miles  can  be  used  to  good  advantage 
in  Utah. 

20  A R 


154  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  time  when  the  volume  of  available  water  furnished  by  any  stream 
bears  the  least  ratio  to  the  demands  of  the  growing  crops  is  the  most  critical 
period  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  where  artificial  irrigation  is  a necessity. 
This  time,  depending  as  it  does  upon  the  crops  cultivated,  the  character  of 
the  soil,  and  the  source  of  the  water  supply,  whether  from  springs  or  from 
melting  snows,  differs  in  different  localities.  In  the  valley  of  the  Virgin  it 
occurs  in  June. 

At  this  time  the  river,  though  not  at  flood  height,  which  occurs  in  April, 
carries  a large  volume  of  water,  and,  by  reason  of  the  source  of  this  supply 
being  in  the  rapidly  melting  snows  of  the  Colob  Plateau,  is  decreasing  but 
slowly,  and  thus  the  amount  available  at  this  critical  period  bears  a greater 
ratio  to  the  flood  of  the  stream  than  is  usual  in  Utah.  But  little  information 
has  been  obtained  concerning  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  irrigate  an 
acre.  It  is  thought,  however,  to  be  much  greater  than  in  any  other  portion 
of  Utah. 


KANAB  CREEK. 

Kanab  Creek  rises  in  springs  bursting  from  underneath  the  cliffs 
forming  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Pauns-a-gunt  Plateau,  and  flows 
southward  until  it  joins  the  Colorado  River  in  Arizona.  Small  areas  of 
arable  land  are  found  along  its  course  after  it  has  descended  to  an  altitude 
of  7,500  feet,  and  thence  until  it  passes  beyond  the  boundaries  of  Utah. 
The  largest  area  in  one  body  is  in  Kanab  Valley,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Vermilion  Cliffs.  It  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  water  supply,  is  at  an 
altitude  of  about  5,000  feet,  has  a fertile  soil,  and  requires  but  compara- 
tivel}r  a small  amount  of  irrigation.  The  amount  actually  under  cul- 
tivation in  1877  is  placed  by  the  best  information  attainable  at  700  acres. 
The  critical  period  in  the  cultivation  of  this  area  occurs  in  June.  At 
that  time  the  stream  is  falling  rapidly,  and  crops  have  sometimes  been 
seriously  damaged.  Estimates  Of  the  volume  of  water  in  the  stream, 
made  at  different  seasons  and  in  different  years,  give  15  cubic  feet  per 
second  as  the  flow  in  June.  Some  desultory  attempts  have  been  made  to 
increase  the  supply  by  ponding,  the  canon  through  the  Vermilion  Cliffs 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE. 


155 


above  the  arable  lands  affording1  many-  opportunities.  When  this  improve- 
ment is  made  on  some  well  considered  and  well  executed  plan,  and  the 
waterways  flumed  through  some  bad  sandy  ground  that  now  absorbs  much 
water,  the  amount  available  at  the  critical  period  can  be  at  least  doubled. 

Some  years  ago  a settlement  was  established  at  the  foot  of  the  Pink 
Cliffs,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Kanab,  but  the  town  site  was  eventually 
abandoned  because  of  the  deep  snows  of  winter  and  the  frosts  of  summer. 

THE  PARIA  RIVER. 

The  Paria  River  rises  under  the  eastern  escarpment  of  the  Pauns-a- 
gunt  Plateau,  at  about  the  same  altitude  as  Kanab  Creek,  and  flows  in  a 
southwesterly  course  for  100  miles,  joining  the  Colorado  in  Arizona. 
Through  the  greater  part  of  its  course  the  river  flows  in  a deep  canon,  but 
near  its  head,  and  at  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  the  canon  expands  into  a 
valley.  Lower  in  its  course,  and  at  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet,  the  canon 
again  widens  into  a smaller  valley.  These  are  the  only  areas  of  arable 
lands  within  its  drainage  basin  in  Utah.  The  larger  contains  15  and  the 
smaller  10  square  miles.  In  August,  1874,  this  stream  flowed  30  cubic  feet 
per  second  in  the  upper  valley.  The  flow  in  the  lower  would  be  one-third 
greater.  High  water  occurs  in  April  or  early  in  May.  At  this  time  the 
volume  is  three  times  greater  than  in  August.  Settlements  have  been  made 
in  both  valleys,  and  quite  a large  area  is  under  cultivation.  The  soil  is 
excellent. 

The  critical  period  in  irrigation  is  the  latter  part  of  June  or  early  in 
July.  At  this  time  the  stream  probably  carries  40  feet  per  second.  The 
land  in  the  lower  valley  is  much  subject  to  flooding  from  heavy  showers 
that,  falling  on  the  table  lands  and  mesas  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  drainage 
basin,  pour  a torrent  often  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  channel  to  convey 
through  the  lower  valley.  So  great  was  the  damage  done  by  these  floods 
in  sweeping  away  dams,  breaking  through  ditches,  and  inundating  the 
growing  crops  at  the  site  first  selected  for  settlement,  that  it  was  abandoned 
after  three  years’  occupation,  and  other  parts,  where  these  sudden  rushes 
could  be  controlled,  selected.  Considerable  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  the  lower  valley  from  the  vast  amount  of  argillaceous  sediment  deposited 


156  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

on  it.  So  great  during  the  floods  is  this  deposit  from  the  water  used  in 
irrigation  that  the  ground  becomes  completely  coated  with  an  impervious 
layer,  and  growing  crops,  especially  of  small  grains,  suffer  from  the  inability 
of  the  soil  to  absorb  the  water  conducted  on  it.  The  irrigating  capacity 
of  this  stream  during  the  critical  period  could  be  greatly  increased  by  the 
construction  of  reservoirs  in  which  to  store  the  great  surplus  of  water  that 
flows  earlier  in  the  season.  The  canons  above  the  valleys  offer  very 
favorable  opportunities  for  building  the  necessary  dams  and  embankments. 

THE  ESCALANTE  RIVER. 

This  stream  enters  the  Colorado  next  north  of  the  Paria.  It  rises 
under  the  wall  forming  the  eastern  face  of  the  Aquarius  Plateau;  flows  first 
northeast,  then  east,  and  finally  southeast,  before  reaching  the  Colorado. 
Its  length  is  90  miles,  the  lower  three-fourths  being  in  a narrow  canon 
having  vertical  walls  ranging  from  900  to  1,200  feet  in  height.  Through 
this  gorge  the  river  sweeps,  sometimes  filling  the  whole  space  from  wall  to 
wall ; sometimes  winding  from  side  to  side  in  a flood  plain  of  sand,  and 
always  shifting  its  bed  more  or  less  with  every  freshet.  Not  an  acre  of 
accessible  arable  land  is  known  in  the  whole  length  of  the  canon,  and  its 
depth  precludes  the  possibility  of  using  the  waters  of  the  river  on  the  lands 
above.  Near  the  head  of  the  southern  branch  of  the  Escalante,  in  what  is 
known  as  Potato  Valley,  and  at  an  elevation  of  about  5,000  feet,  is  an  area 
of  about  6 square  miles  of  available  land.  The  flow  of  water  in  this  branch 
was  90  cubic  feet  per  second  in  July,  1875.  A portion  of  this  area  is  now 
under  cultivation,  and  is  said  to  produce  good  crops.  A portion  of  the  east 
flank  of  the  Aquarius  Plateau  is  drained  by  a number  of  creeks  that  join 
the  Escalante  in  the  deep  gorge  below  Potato  Valley;  but  they  all  enter 
close  canons,  in  which  no  areas  of  arable  land  are  known  at  an  altitude 
low  enough  for  successful  cultivation.  Part  of  the  waters  of  these  creeks 
might  be  used  to  irrigate  grass  lands  at  an  altitude  of  about  8,000  feet; 
but  the  conditions  of  pasturage  are  such  in  this  region  that  the  amount 
practically  available  is  small. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE. 


157 


THE  FREMONT  RIVER. 

The  largest  branch  of  this  stream  rises  in  the  Un-ca-pa-ga  Mountains, 
and  after  flowing  in  an  easterly  direction  for  125  miles  enters  the  Colo- 
rado about  40  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Grand  and  Green.  It  is 
joined  by  one  considerable  tributary,  Curtis  Creek,  from  the  north,  and 
another  smaller,  Tantalus  Creek,  from  the  south.  The  lower  half  of  its 
course  is  through  two  deep  canons,  separated  by  an  intervening  valley  called 
Graves  Valley,  in  which  is  an  area  of  10  square  miles  of  arable  land, 
with  an  altitude  of  4,500  feet  above  sea  level.  On  the  upper  waters  of 
the  main  river,  in  what  is  known  as  Rabbit  Valley,  and  at  an  altitude  of 
nearly  7,000  feet,  are  25  square  miles  of  arable  land  of  good  quality.  This 
area,  from  its  altitude,  should  be  subject  to  late  and  early  frosts,  but  the 
warm  sandy  soil  and  southeastern  slope  of  the  whole  valley  will  probably 
prevent  much  damage  from  this  cause.  The  valley  is  now  used  as  a herd 
ground  for  cattle  belonging  to  the  settlements  in  Sevier  Valley,  and  the  few 
experiments  made  by  the  herdsmen  in  cultivating  the  soil  also  indicate  that 
the  danger  to  be  apprehended  is  slight.  The  volume  of  water  flowing 
through  Rabbit  Valley  in  July,  1875,  was  175  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Tantalus  Creek  drains  the  northern  portion  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Aquarius  Plateau.  It  enters  a close  canon  at  8,000  feet  altitude,  and 
continues  in  canons  until  it  has  passed  through  Water  Pocket  Fold.  It 
then  flows  along  a desolate  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  fold  until  it  joins  the 
Fremont  River.  During  the  warmer  months  the  water  in  this  creek  is 
usually  absorbed  and  evaporated  before  reaching  its  mouth.  In  the  valley 
at  the  foot  of  Water  Pocket  Fold  are  about  10  square  miles  of  arable  land ; 
but  the  almost  inaccessible  situation  of  the  valley  and  the  desolation  and 
ruggedness  of  the  surrounding  country  may  present  insurmountable  obsta- 
cles to  its  settlement. 

Curtis  Creek,  the  northern  tributary  of  Fremont  River,  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  several  smaller  streams  that  rise  in  the  Wasatch  Plateau. 
Debouching  from  the  plateau,  these  branches  flow  across  what  is  known 
as  Castle  Valley,  and  here,  at  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  are  25  square 
miles  of  good  arable  land.  They  were  measured  in  September,  1876,  and 


158  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

gave  an  aggregated  flow  of  47  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  they  derive  a 
greater  part  of  their  waters  from  the  melting  snows  on  the  plateau,  double 
this  amount,  or  94  cubic  feet,  would  not  be  an  overestimate  of  the  volume 
during  the  irrigating  season.  After  the  union  of  these  branches,  the  united 
stream  flows  in  a deep  canon  until  near  its  junction  with  the  Fremont 
River  in  Graves  Valley.  Both  Curtis  Creek  and  the  Fremont  receive 
some  accessions  to  their  volume  from  springs  in  the  canons  through  which 
they  flow  above  this  valley.  If  all  the  water  in  their  upper  courses  should 
be  used  to  irrigate  lands  in  Castle  and  Rabbit  Valleys,  a sufficient  amount 
would  be  returned  to  their  channels  by  percolation  to  irrigate,  with  the 
addition  of  the  accessions  in  the  canons,  all  the  arable  land  in  Graves 
Valley. 

THE  SAN  RAFAEL  RIVER. 

This  stream  flows  in  an  easterly  course,  and  enters  the  Green  32 
miles  above  the  junction  of  that  stream  with  the  Grand.  It  has  three 
principal  branches — Ferron,  Cottonwood,  and  Huntington  Creeks — all 
rising  in  the  Wasatch  Plateau  at  an  altitude  of  about  10,000  feet.  These 
streams  have  a rapid  fall  in  their  upper  courses,  and  leave  the  plateau 
through  almost  impassable  canons  cut  in  its  eastern  wall  overlooking  Castle 
Valley.  They  flow  across  that  at  intervals  of  a few  miles  apart,  and,  then 
uniting,  cut  a deep,  narrow  canon  through  the  San  Rafael  Swell.  Emerg- 
ing from  the  swell,  the  river  flows  across  a low,  broken  country  until  its 
junction  with  the  Green.  The  largest  body  of  arable  land  within  the 
drainage  basin  of  the  San  Rafael  is  in  Castle  Valley,  a long,  narrow 
depression  lying  between  the  eastern  escarpment  of  the  Wasatch  Plateau 
and  the  San  Rafael  Swell.  It  is  nearly  60  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south,  and  has  an  average  elevation  of  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
southern  end,  as  has  been  before  mentioned,  is  drained  by  the  tributaries 
of  Curtis  Creek,  the  central  portion  by  the  three  streams  forming  the  San 
Rafael,  and  the  northern  by  Price  River.  No  permanent  settlements  have 
been  made  in  the  valley,  but  it  is  much  used  as  a winter  herding  ground 
for  stock  owned  by  the  settlers  in  other  portions  of  Utah.  Lying  near  the 
branches  of  the  San  Rafael  that  cross  it,  and  in  such  position  that  the  water 
can  be  easily  conducted  over  it,  are  200  square  miles  of  arable  land, 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE. 


159 


generally  of  good  quality.  East  of  the  San  Rafael  Swell,  and  lying  on 
both  sides  of  the  river,  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet,  are  20  square  miles  of 
arable  land,  which  could  be  easily  irrigated.  The  river  was  carefully 
measured  in  July,  1876,  and  the  volume  of  flow  found  to  be  1,676  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  three  branches  in  Castle  Valley  were  also  measured, 
with  results  closely  approximating  the  measurement  of  the  united  streams. 
These  measurements  were  made  at  high  water,  though  not  when  the 
streams  were  at  their  flood.  As  most  of  this  volume  is  derived  from  the 
melting  snow,  which  rarely  disappears  from  the  high  plateau  before  the 
middle  of  July,  the  flow  would  be  maintained  with  considerable  steadiness 
during  a large  part  of  what  would  be  the  critical  period  in  the  irrigation 
of  this  valley.  After  the  middle  of  July  the  decrease  would  be  very  rapid 
until  September,  and  the  lowest  stage  of  water  reached  about  the  first  of 
October,  when  the  river  would  not  flow  probably  more  than  400  cubic  feet. 

THE  PRICE  RIVER. 

This  river  rises  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  Wasatch 
and  Western  Tavaputs  Plateaus,  receiving  tributaries  from  both  these  table 
lands,  and  has  a general  easterly  course  for  100  miles.  It  crosses  the 
northern  end  of  Castle  Valley,  and  then  flows  through  a broken  country 
near  the  foot  of  the  escarpment  called  the  Book  Cliffs,  forming  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Tavaputs  Plateau,  till  within  20  miles  of  the  Green 
River,  when  it  cuts  through  this  escarpment  into  the  plateau  and  joins  the 
Green  a few  miles  above  the  foot  of  Gray  Canon.  The  arable  lands  along 
its  course  are  mostly  found  in  Castle  Valley,  where  there  are  at  least  50 
square  miles — a quantity  considerably  in  excess  of  the  irrigating  capacity 
of  the  stream.  The  volume  of  water  was  measured  in  July,  1877,  a few 
miles  below  where  it  debouches  into  Castle  Valley,  and  found  to  be  189 
cubic  feet  per  second.  It  must  suffer  great  loss  from  absorption,  as  the 
volume  when  leaving  the  cliffs  is  much  greater,  and  the  aggregated  flow  of 
the  branches  on  the  plateaus  is  at  least  twice  as  great. 

MINNIE  MAUD  CREEK. 

This  stream  rises  in  the  broken  country,  where  the  Western  Tavaputs 
and  Wasatch  Plateaus  break  into  the  Uinta  Mountains.  It  has  a general 


160  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


easterly  course,  and  joins  the  Green  midway  in  the  Canon  of  Desolation. 
For  the  greater  part  of  its  course  it  flows  in  a canon  that  widens  enough 
occasionally  to  give  a small  area  of  arable  land.  One  such  area,  containing 
6 square  miles,  occurs  at  an  altitude  of  5,500  feet.  Here  the  volume  of 
water  was  measured  in  July,  1877,  and  found  to  be  16  cubic  feet  per 
second. 


THE  UINTA  RIVER. 

This  is  the  largest  tributary  emptying  into  the  main  drainage  channel 
from  the  west.  It  rises  in  the  Uinta  Mountains,  and  has  a southerly  course 
for  65  miles.  The  Duchesne  River,  its  western  branch,  rises  in  the  same 
mountains,  and  the  two  streams  unite  only  a few  miles  before  the  Uinta 
joins  the  Green.  The  drainage  basin  of  the  Uinta  has  an  area  of  1,300 
square  miles,  lying  between  the  altitudes  of  4,500  and  7,000  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  lias,  generally  speaking,  a regular  slope  from  the  foot  of  the  Uinta 
Mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the  streams,  or  in  a direction  toward  the  southeast. 
The  surface  of  the  basin  is  greatly  diversified,  consisting  of  broad  reaches 
of  bottom  lands  along  the  rivers;  elevated,  level,  or  gently  sloping  benches, 
sometimes  partially  arable,  but  oftener  gravelly  barrens;  broken,  rock- 
faced  terraces;  and  low  cliffs  and  ridges.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the 
amount  of  arable  land.  All  the  bottom  lands  are  such,  and  can  be  easily 
irrigated.  The  streams  have  a rapid  fall,  but  flow  near  the  surface,  and  no 
deep  canons  are  found  anywhere  in  the  basin.  This  renders  it  possible  to 
conduct  the  water  over  considerable  areas  of  bench  land,  and  wherever  the 
soil  of  these  is  sufficiently  fertile,  selections  of  good  farming  land  can  be 
made.  Above  the  limit  in  altitude  for  successful  cultivation,  large  tracts 
of  meadow  lands  can  be  irrigated.  Those  best  acquainted  with  the  extent 
of  these  classes  of  land  place  the  arable,  including  irrigable  natural 
meadow  lands,  at  40  per  cent,  of  the  whole  basin.  This  would  give  an 
area  of  520  square  miles,  and  I do  not  think  it  is  an  overestimate.  The 
volume  of  water  flowing  in  the  Duchesne  River  above  its  junction  with 
Lake  Fork  was  measured  in  August,  1877,  and  found  to  be  !,CH1  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  Uinta  was  measured  above  its  junction  with  the 
Duchesne  in  October,  1877,  and  then  flowed  214  cubic  feet  per  second. 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE 


161 


These  streams  all  rise  in  high  mountains,  from  whose  summits  the  snow  is 
never  completely  melted.  The  line  of  highest  water  is  usually  in  June, 
but  the  flow  is  well  sustained  through  July.  After  that  the  volume 
rapidly  decreases,  and  lowest  water  occurs  in  October.  The  critical  period 
in  the  irrigation  of  this  basin  would  occur  in  August.  I think  it  may 
safely  be  assumed  that  the  measurements  of  the  Duchesne  and  the  Uinta 
represent  the  flow  at  the  critical  period,  but  that  Lake  Fork  should  be 
doubled.  This  would  give  1,825  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  enough  to  irri- 
gate, at  the  assumed  standard,  285  square  miles,  or  22  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  area  of  the  basin,  and  indicates  the  Uinta  drainage  as  one  of  the  best, 
if  not  the  best,  agricultural  valley  in  Utah. 

ASHLEY  FORK. 

This  stream  is  the  most  northern  tributary  of  the  Green  River  south 
of  the  Uinta  Mountains.  It  rises  in  -that  range,  but  at  a lower  altitude 
than  the  branches  of  the  Uinta,  and  has  a southeasterly  course  48  miles  in 
length.  On  its  lower  course,  at  an  altitude  of  5,500  feet,  are  75  square 
miles  of  arable  land  of  excellent  quality,  a few  acres  of  which  are  now 
cultivated.  There  is  sufficient  water  in  the  stream  during  the  critical 
season  to  irrigate  25  square  miles. 

HENRYS  FORK. 

But  a small  portion  of  the  valley  of  Henrys  Fork  lies  within  the 
Territory  of  Utah,  but  this  portion  includes  its  best  lands.  A beautiful 
natural  meadow  is  here  found,  affording  a large  quantity  of  hay  to  the 
ranchmen  of  that  country.  The  altitude  is  great,  the  valley  being  6,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  hence  liable  to  late  and  early 
frosts. 

About  10  square  miles  can  be  redeemed  by  irrigation.  The  volume 
of  the  stream  is  sufficient  to  irrigate  a much  larger  tract,  but  a part  is  needed 
for  other  lands  which  lie  farther  up  the  river,  within  the  Territory  of 
Wyoming. 

THE  WHITE  RIVER. 

The  White  River  enters  the  Green  from  the  east,  about  two  miles 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Uinta.  This  stream  rises  in  Colorado,  and  has  only 
21  A R 


162  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


a small  portion  of  its  course  in  Utah,  but  lying  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  Territory  are  75  square  miles  of  arable  land  which  may  be  irrigated 
with  its  water.  The  river  was  measured  in  October,  1877,  near  its  mouth, 
and  flowed  734  cubic  feet  per  second.  High  water  usually  occurs  in 
June,  and  the  critical  period  in  the  irrigation  of  the  land  is  probably  in 
August,  when  the  stream  should  flow  at  least  double  the  volume  of 
October,  or,  1,468  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  would  be  greatly  in  excess 
of  the  amount  needed  to  irrigate  the  available  land  in  Utah,  and,  from  the 
best  information  attainable,  it  seems  doubtful  if  it  could  be  used  higher 
up  on  the  course  of  the  stream. 

THE  GREEN  RIVER. 

Brown's  Park. — Brown’s  Park  is  a valley  through  which  the  Green 
River  meanders.  Three  or  four  small  streams  head  in  the  mountains  to 
the  north  and  a like  number  in  the  moutains  to  the  south  and  find  their 
way  into  the  river  in  the  midst  of  the  park.  But  a small  portion  of  the 
park  lies  within  Utah  and  the  small  streams  will  be  used  for  irrigation 
in  the  portion  which  falls  in  Colorado.  The  flood  plain  lands  of  the 
Green  are  extensive,  and  here  many  natural  meadow  lands  are  found, 
interspersed  with  fine  groves  of  cottonwood.  Some  of  the  bench  lands  are 
well  adapted  to  irrigation,  but  a portion  of  them  and  the  foot  hills  back 
of  them  are  naked,  valueless  bad-lands. 

When  the  general  industries  of  the  country  shall  warrant  the  great 
expenditure  necessary,  the  Green  will  be  taken  out  to  irrigate  the  bench 
lands  on  either  side.  About  10  square  miles  of  these  bench  lands  will  fall 
within  Utah. 

Below  Split  Mountain  Canon. — Lying  along  the  Green,  and  between  the 
foot  of  Split  Mountain  Canon  and  the  mouth  of  the  Uinta,  are  50  square 
miles  of  arable  land.  Some  portions  of  this  may  be  subject  to  inundations 
at  times  of  extraordinary  floods,  but  the  greater  part  is  above  high  water 
mark.  Green  River  here  carries  sufficient  water  to  irrigate  many  times  this 
amount  of  land,  and  while  the  cost  for  the  construction  of  suitable  dams 
and  canals  would  be  greater  than  on  smaller  streams,  neither  this  nor  the 


IRRIGABLE  LANDS  OF  THE  COLORADO  DRAINAGE. 


163 


engineering  skill  required  would  be  beyond  the  resources  of  any  ordinary 
settlement. 

Gunnison  Valley. — In  Gunnison  Valley,  below  the  foot  of  Gray  Canon, 
are  25  square  miles  of  arable  land.  The  cost  of  constructing  the  necessary 
irrigation  works  at  this  point  would  be  greater  than  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Uinta,  but  still  not  beyond  the  ability  of  a colony.  Green  River  flowed  in 
Gunnison  Valley  in  September,  1877,  4,400  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second, 
enough  to  irrigate  at  the  standard  adopted  860  square  miles.  There  seems 
to  be  no  arable  land  to  which  it  is  possible  to  take  this  great  surplus,  and 
probably  for  many  years  to  come  it  will  be  suffered  to  flow  “un vexed  to 
the  sea”. 

The  area  colored  on  the  map  is  much  greater  than  above  indicated. 
The  selections  of  irrigable  lands  will  be  made  on  either  side  of  the  river, 
in  patches,  within  the  colored  district. 

THE  GRAND  RIVER. 

The  Grand  River  has  but  a small  amount  of  arable  land  along  its 
course  in  Utah,  and  flows  for  most  of  the  distance  in  a close  canon.  The 
volume  of  the  stream,  about  40  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Green, 
was  measured  in  September,  1877,  and  found  to  be  4,860  feet  per  second. 
It  is  probable  that  selections  can  be  made  to  the  extent  of  40  square  miles 
from  the  areas  colored  on  the  map. 

THE  SAN  JUAN  RIVER. 

But  little  is  known  concerning  the  arable  lands  or  volume  of  water  in 
the  valley  of  the  San  Juan.  It  flows  for  the  most  of  its  course  through 
Utah  in  a canon,  and  all  the  arable  land  is  thought  to  be  so  much  subject 
to  overflow  that  cultivation  is  impracticable. 

OTHER  STREAMS. 

A few  smaller  streams  are  also  tributary  to  the  Colorado  and  Green 
within  the  Territory  of  Utah,  but  they  mostly  flow  in  deep  canons,  are  often 
dry  in  some  portion  of  their  course  during  every  year,  have  at  best  only 
a few  acres  of  arable  land  anywhere  along  their  courses,  and  have  been 
omitted  in  this  report. 


164  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  following  table  gives  a summary  of  the  facts  relating  to  the  flow 
of  the  several  streams  and  the  amount  of  arable  and  irrigable  lands  in  the 
districts  described  above : 


8 s jS  =>  £ f,  S S ~ S £ « « M 5 

I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I 1 1 


CHAPTER  X. 

LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVE- 
MENTS. 

By  Willis  Drummond,  Jr. 

The  land  grant  system  in  favor  of  internal  improvements  has  become 
a well  settled  policy  of  this  Government,  and  has  attained  not  only  a social 
but  a political  importance. 

Like  other  American  institutions  its  growth  has  been  rapid,  and  dona- 
tions of  that  character  now  cover  millions  of  acres  of  the  public  domain. 
Of  grants  for  railroads,  wagon  roads,  and  canals  alone,  however,  will  this 
chapter  treat,  and  no  reference  other  than  necessary  to  a proper  examina- 
tion of  the  question  will  be  made  to  con  cessions  whose  terms  place  the  lands 
under  specific  disposal  by  the  States,  such  as  those  for  the  establishment  of 
schools,  reclamation  of  swamp  lands,  etc. 

The  majority  of  grants,  therefore,  coming  within  our  notice  will  be 
those  in*  aid  of  railroads,  though  many  have  been  made  in  favor  of  wagon 
roads  and  canals.  The  latter  have,  however,  almost  become  things  of 
the  past,  and  are  rapidly  being  superseded  by  the  railway.  More  than 
one  canal  has  given  way  to  the  more  popular  and  general  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  further  donations  for  canal  purposes 
will  be  made,  unless  the  circumstances  should  be  such  as  to  absolutely 
demand  that  means  of  conveyance.  At  any  rate,  they  will  not  be  made 
for  purposes  of  general  improvement. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  point  out  the  origin,  growth,  character, 
and  extent  of  these  concessions.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  inquire  into 
the  early  donations  for  various  purposes. 


165 


166  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  first  act  making  a donation  in  favor  of  internal  improvements 
was  approved  on  the  30th  of  April,  1802,  and  was  entitled  “An  act  to 
enable  the  people  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  territory  northwest  of  the 
river  Ohio  to  form  a constitution  and  State  government,  and  for  the  admis- 
sion of  such  State  into  the  Union  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  original 
States,  and  for  other  purposes.” 

By  the  third  proviso  to  the  seventh  section  of  that  statute,  “one- 
twentieth  part  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  lands  lying  within  the  said  State 
sold  by  Congress,  from  and  after  the  thirtieth  day  of  June  next,  after 
deducting  all  expenses  incident  to  the  same”,  was  granted  and  given  to  the 
said  State  (Ohio),  and  was  to  be  applied  to  the  laying  out  and  making  of 
public  roads  leading  to  the  Ohio  River,  to  the  said  State,  and  through  the 
same,  from  the  navigable  waters  emptying  into  the  Atlantic.  Such  roads 
were  to  be  laid  out  under  the  authority  of  Congress,  with  the  consent  of 
the  several  States  through  which  they  passed. 

By  an  act  approved  March  3,  1803,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  was 
directed  to  pay,  to  such  persons  as  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  Ohio 
should  designate,  3 per  cent,  of  the  net  proceeds,  as  above,  which  sums 
were  to  be  applied  to  laying  out,  opening,  and  making  roads  within  said 
State. 

These  acts,  I believe,  are  the  first  two  touching  public  improvements 
through  congressional  aid.  Of  course  there  had  previously  been  many 
donations  of  land  in  favor  of  various  persons,  but  they  were  for-  services 
rendered  the  Government,  or  special  pre-emption  privileges. 

Legislation  similar  to  the  acts  above  referred  to,  was  enacted  until  the 
year  1824,  varying  only  in  the  extent  of  the  proceeds  granted. 

By  an  act  approved  May  26,  1824,  the  State  of  Indiana  was  author- 
ized to  open  and  build  a canal,  and  the  right  of  way  with  90  feet  of  land 
on  each  side  thereof,  was  granted,  subject  to  use  and  occupancy  for  the 
purposes  specified.  Nothing,  however,  was  done  under  that  act  by  the 
State;  and  on  the  2d  of  March,  1827,  it  was  superseded  by  an  act  of  greater 
extent.  On  that  day  two  acts  were  passed  giving  to  Indiana  and  Illinois, 
respectively,  certain  lands  in  aid  of  the  construction  of  canals,  the  first  to 
connect  the  navigation  of  the  Wabash  River  with  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie, 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OP  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS. 


167 


and  the  second  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  Illinois  River  with  those  of 
Lake  Michigan.  A quantity  of  land,  equal  to  one-half  of  five  sections  in 
width  on  each  side  of  said  canals,  was  granted,  reserving  to  the  United 
States  each  alternate  section.  The  canals  were  to  remain  public  highways 
for  the  use  of  the  Government,  free  from  toll  or  other  charge  whatever; 
were  to  be  commenced  in  five  years,  and  completed  in  twenty  years,  or  the 
States  were  bound  to  pay  to  the  United  States  “the  amount  of  any  lands 
previously  sold”,  and  the  titles  of  the  purchasers  under  the  States  were  to 
be  valid. 

As  soon  as  the  lines  of  the  canals  were  fixed  and  the  selections  of  land 
were  made,  the  States  had  power  to  sell,  and  give  fee  simple  title  to  the 
whole  or  any  part  of  the  lands. 

These  may,  properly,  be  considered  the  initiatory  concessions  of  lands 
in  favor  of  internal  improvements. 

As  stated,  a grant  for  right  of  way  had  been  made,  but  that  right  was 
solely  one  of  use  and  occupancy.  In  this  case  the  right  of  the  States  to 
sell  became  absolute  upon  the  selection  of  the  lands.  To  be  sure,  they 
were  liable  to  repay  the  Government  the  price  received  by  the  sale  of  any 
of  the  lands,  but  the  titles  of  their  purchasers  were  to  be  in  “fee”;  and  by 
such  right  of  disposal  they  were  enabled  to  realize  at  once  on  their  grant, 
and  thereby  secure  a speedier  construction  of  the  canals. 

On  the  same  day  (March  2)  there  was  also  granted  to  Indiana  a 
certain  strip  of  land  formerly  held  by  the  Pottawatamie  Indians,  or  the 
proceeds  from  the  sale  thereof,  to  be  applied  in  building  a road  from  Lake 
Michigan,  via  Indianapolis,  to  some  convenient  point  on  the  Ohio  River. 

On  the  next  day  (March  3)  an  act  was  approved  granting  to  Ohio 
one-half  of  two  sections  along  the  entire  line  of  a road  to  be  constructed 
from  Sandusky  to  Columbus. 

By  an  act  approved  May  23,  1828,  a grant  of  400,000  acres  of  “the 
relinquished  lands”  in  certain  counties  in  Alabama  was  made  in  aid  of  the 
improvement  of  the  Tennessee  and  other  rivers  in  that  State;  and  in  case 
that  amount  of  “said  relinquished  lands”  could  not  be  found  unappro- 
priated, the  necessary  quantity  could  be  selected  from  another  section  of 
the  State.  Provision  was  made  for  the  sale  of  the  lands,  at  the  minimum 


168  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

price,  but  in  case  said  lands  or  the  proceeds  thereof  were  applied  to  any 
purposes  other  than  that  for  which  they  were  granted,  the  grant  was  to 
become  null  and  void 

In  this  grant  we  find  the  first  provisions  for  indemnity  if  the  grant  was 
not  full  by  reason  of  prior  sales  or  disposals  by  the  Government.  There, 
if  the  lands  were  not  to  be  found  “in  place”,  selections  “in  lieu”  could  be 
made  from  another  county. 

Grants  like  the  one  just  referred  to  were  made  from  time  to  time, 
differing  but  little  in  their  character  and  extent. 

By  an  act  approved  March  2,  1833,  the  State  of  Illinois  was  authorized 
to  apply  the  lands  granted  by  the  act  of  March  2,  1827,  for  canal 
purposes,  to  the  construction  of  a railroad  instead;  and  the  same  restrictive 
impositions  were  continued. 

This  is  the  first  act  looking  to  the  construction  of  a railroad  through 
the  assistance  of  land  donations. 

The  railroad  system  was  then  but  in  its  infancy,  and  the  few  miles 
built  had  been  constructed  by  private  means. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  however,  that  the  State  did  not  avail  itself  of  the 
privilege  granted,  for  it  subsequently  built  a canal. 

An  act  approved  March  3,  1835,  granted,  for  the  purpose  of  aiding 
in  the  construction  of  a railroad  by  a corporation  organized  in  Florida, 
the  right  of  way  through  the  public  lands  over  which  it  might  pass, 
thirty  feet  of  land  on  each  side  of  its  line,  and  the  right  to  take  and  use 
the  timber  for  “one  hundred  yards”  on  each  side  for  the  construction 
and  repair  of  said  road;  it  w'as  also  granted  “ten  acres  of  land  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  St.  Mark’s  and  Waculla  Rivers”,  the  point  where  said  road  ter- 
minated. This  was  the  first  right  of  way  grant  in  favor  of  railroads,  the 
previous  grant  having  been  for  a canal. 

Following  this  came  an  act  approved  July  2,  1836,  granting  the  right 
of  way  “through  such  portion  of  the  public  lands  as  remain  unsold”,  not 
to  exceed  80  feet  in  width,  to  the  New  Orleans  and  Nashville  Railroad 
Company.  The  first  section  of  that  statute  required  that  a description 
of  the  route  and  surveys  should  be  filed  in  the  General  Land  Office 
within  sixty  days  after  the  survey.  The  second  section  granted  for  depots, 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  169 

watering-places,  and  workshops,  essential  to  the  convenient  use  of  the 
road,  certain  plats  of  land,  not  exceeding  five  acres  in  any  one  spot,  nor 
nearer  than  fifteen  miles  to  each  other. 

The  third  section  gave  the  company  the  right  to  take  from  the  public 
lands  earth,  stone,  or  timber  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the  road; 
and  provided  that  unless  the  work  was  commenced  within  two  years  after 
the  approval  of  the  act,  and  completed  within  eight  years  thereafter,  the 
grant  should  “cease  and  determine”.  It  provided,  moreover,  that  if  the 
road  should  be  abandoned  or  discontinued,  even  after  its  completion,  the 
grant  was  to  “cease  and  determine”. 

So  far  as  can  be  learned,  this  road  was  never  completed.  It  is  inserted 
so  fully  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  gradual  growth  of  the  system. 

Next  to  this  came  a grant  to  the  East  Florida  and  other  railroads, 
similar  in  general  terms  to  those  previously  referred  to.  It  required,  how- 
ever, the  companies  to  file,  with  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  maps  showing  the  location  of  their  roads.  This  was  to  be  done 
within  six  months  after  such  locations.  I am  unable  to  find  that  any  of 
those  roads  were  ever  constructed.  Certainly,  no  evidence  thereof  was  ever 
furnished  the  General  Land  Office. 

A grant  similar  to  the  one  to  the  New  Orleans  and  Nashville  company 
was  made  by  act  of  March  3,  1837,  to  the  Atchafalaya  Railroad  and  Bank- 
ing Company  in  Louisiana. 

Many  grants  of  like  character  and  extent  were  made  from  time  to 
time,  as  also  donations  in  favor  of  various  other  internal  improvements. 
The  greatest  of  these  latter,  however,  were  the  grants  in  aid  of  improving 
the  navigation  of  the  Des  Moines  River  in  Iowa,  and  the  Fox  and  Wiscon- 
sin Rivers  in  Wisconsin,  which  were  approved  August  8,  1846. 

The  first  of  these  made  a grant  to  the  then  Territory  of  Iowa,  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  “the  navigation  of  the  Des  Moines  River  from  its 
mouth  to  the  Raccoon  Fork  (so  called),  in  said  Territory”,  of  “one  equal 
moiety,  in  alternate  sections,  of  the  public  lands  (remaining  unsold,  and 
not  otherwise  disposed  of,  encumbered,  or  appropriated),  in  a strip  five 
miles  in  width  on  each  side  of  said  river,  to  be  selected  within  said  Terri- 
tory by  an  agent  or  agents  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  thereof,  sub- 
22  A R 


170  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States”. 
The  second  section  provided  that  “the  lands  hereby  granted  shall  not  be 
conveyed  or  disposed  of  by  said  Territory,  nor  by  any  State  to  be  formed 
out  of  the  same,  except  as  said  improvements  shall  progress;  that  is,  the 
said  Territory  or  State  may  sell  so  much  of  said  lands  as  shall  produce  the 
sum  of  thirty  thousand  dollars,  and  then  the  sales  shall  cease  until  the  gov- 
ernor of  said  Territory  or  State  shall  certify  the  fact  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States  that  one-half  of  said  sum  has  been  expended  upon  said 
improvement,  when  the  said  Territory  or  State  may  sell  and  convey  a 
quantity  of  the  residue  of  said  lands  sufficient  to  replace  the  amount 
expended,  and  thus  the  sales  shall  progress  as  the  proceeds  thereof  shall  be 
expended,  and  the  fact  of  such  expenditure  shall  be  certified  as  aforesaid.” 

Section  3 declared  that  the  river  should  forever  remain  a public 
highway  for  the  use  of  the  Government,  free  from  toll  or  other  charge 
whatever;  and  provided  that  the  Territory  or  State  should  not  dispose  of 
the  lands  at  a price  less  than  the  minimum  price  of  public  lands. 

The  grant  to  Wisconsin  for  the  improvement  of  the  F ox  and  Wisconsin 
Rivers,  though  approved  the  same  day,  was  somewhat  different  from  the 
Des  Moines  grant.  It  provided  that  “there  be,  and  hereby  is,  granted  to 
the  State  of  Wisconsin”,  upon  the  admission  of  Wisconsin  as  a State  (which, 
by  the  way,  had  been  provided  for  by  an  act  approved  two  days  before), 
“for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  navigation  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin 
Rivers  in  the  Territory  of  Wisconsin,  and  of  constructing  the  canal  to 
unite  the  said  rivers,  at  or  near  the  portage,  a quantity  of  land,  equal  to  one- 
half  of  three  sections  in  width  on  each  side  of  said  Fox  River,  and  the 
lakes  through  which  it  passes  from  its  mouth  to  the  point  where  the  portage 
canal  shall  enter  the  same,  and  on  each  side  of  said  canal  from  one  stream 
to  the  other,  reserving  the  alternate  sections  to  the  United  States,  to  be 
selected  under  the  direction  of  the  governor  of  said  State,  and  such  selection 
to  be  approved  by  the  President  of  the  United  States”.  The  rivers,  when 
improved,  were  to  remain  forever  public  highways  for  the  use  of  the 
Government,  free  from  toll;  and  the  sections  reserved  to  the  United  States 
were  not  to  be  sold  for  less  than  $2.50  per  acre. 

By  the  second  section,  the  legislature  of  the  State  was  to  accept  the 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  171 


grant  and  fix  the  price  at  which  the  lands  were  to  be  sold  (at  not  less  than 
Si. 25  per  acre),  and  adopt  such  kind  and  plan  of  improvement  as  was  for 
the  best  interests  of  the  State. 

The  provisions  for  the  sale  of  the  lands  were  the  same  as  in  the  Iowa 
grant,  except  that  the  sum  to  be  realized  by  such  sales  was  fixed  at  $20,000. 

Section  3 required  the  work  to  be  commenced  within  three  years  after 
the  admission  of  the  State,  and  to  be  completed  within  twenty  years,  or 
the  United  States  was  to  be  entitled  to  receive  the  amount  for  which  any 
of  the  lands  may  have  been  sold ; the  titles  in  the  purchasers  from  the  State 
were,  however,  to  be  valid. 

The  language  employed  in  this  statute  was  more  definite  than  that 
used  in  the  Des  Moines  grant,  and  in  it  is  to  be  found  the  first  provisions 
respecting  the  increase  in  price  of  the  reserved  sections. 

Probably  no  grant  of  this  character  has  received  such  widespread 
notoriety  as  the  one  for  the  improvement  of  the  Des  Moines  River.  It  is 
owing,  no  doubt,  in  a great  degree  to  the  numerous  conflicting  decisions  by 
the  Executive  Departments  touching  the  extent  of  the  grant.  The  Hon.  R. 
J.  Walker,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (under  whose  supervision  the  Land 
Office  then  came),  decided  on  the  2d  of  March,  1849,  that  the  grant 
extended  above  the  tributary  of  the  Des  Moines  River  commonly  known 
as  the  Raccoon  Fork.  The  Land  Office  soon  thereafter  passed  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  was  placed  as  one  of  the 
bureaus  of  the  Home  or  Interior  Department.  The  Secretary  of  this  lately 
established  branch  of  the  Government  (Hon.  Thomas  Ewing)  decided  on 
the  6tli  of  April,  1 850,  that  the  grant  did  not  extend  above  the  Raccoon 
Fork.  From  that  decision  the  State  of  Iowa  appealed  to  the  President, 
who  laid  the  matter  before  the  Attorney- General.  That  officer  (Hon. 
Reverdy  Johnson),  on  July  19,  1850,  expressed  an  opinion  confirmatory  of 
the  decision  of  Secretary  Walker.  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  however, 
being  determined  in  his  views,  did  not  adopt  the  opinion  of  the  Attorney- 
General,  and  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  wrote,  under 
date  of  26th  September,  1850,  to  the  President,  reviewing  and  objecting  to 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  Johnson.  The  President,  having  been  again  applied  to 
by  the  State  of  Iowa  to  determine  the  matter,  referred  the  whole  question 


172  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

to  tlie  Attorney- General  (then  Hon.  J.  J.  Crittenden).  That  officer, 
without  delivering  an  opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  case,  expressed  the 
belief  that  the  President  ought  not  to  interfere,  but  should  leave  such 
questions  to  the  proper  officers.  The  then  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (Hon. 
A.  II.  H.  Stuart)  thereupon  decided  that  the  grant  did  not  extend  above 
the  fork,  but  subsequently  decided  to  approve  the  selections  for  lands 
above  the  fork.  Attorney-General  Cushing,  on  the  29tli  of  May,  1856, 
expressed  the  belief  that  on  the  merits  of  the  case  the  grant  was  limited  to 
the  Raccoon  Fork,  but  as  Secretary  Stuart  had  approved  selections  above 
that  point,  such  practical  enforcement  of  the  grant  had  better  be  con- 
tinued. The  view  of  Mr.  Cushing  was  subsequently  maintained  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  Railroad  Company  vs.  Litchfield 
(23  Howard,  page  66).  By  the  act  of  Congress  approved  July  12,  1862, 
the  grant  was  extended  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State,  so  as  to 
include  the  alternate  odd  numbered  sections  lying  within  five  miles  of  said 
river,  upon  the  following  conditions:  The  lands  were  to  be  held  and  applied 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  original  grant,  except  that  the 
consent  of  Congress  was  given  to  the  application  of  a “a  portion  thereof” 
to  aid  in  the  construction  of  the  Keokuk,  Fort  Des  Moines  and  Minnesota 
Railroad,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an  act  of  the  general 
assembly  of  the  State  approved  March  22,  1858. 

It  is  well  to  state  that  the  work  of  improving  the  river  was  abandoned, 
and  the  railroad  was  constructed  instead. 

Without  examining  the  numerous  right  of  way  and  other  lesser  grants, 
I desire  to  direct  attention  to  what  is  generally  considered  the  first  railroad 
grant.  Reference  is  made  to  the  donation  by  the  act  of  September  20,  1850. 

By  that  statute  a grant  was  made  to  the  State  of  Illinois  of  “every 
alternate  section  of  land  designated  by  even  numbers,  for  six  sections  in 
width  on  each  side  of”  the  road  and  branches  therein  provided  for.  The 
road  to  be  built  was  from  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Illinois  and  Michi- 
gan Canal  to  a point  at  or  near  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Rivers,  with  a branch  of  the  same  to  Chicago,  and  another  via  the  town  of 
Galena,  in  Illinois,  to  the  town  of  Dubuque,  in  Iowa. 

The  second  section  provided  that  should  it  appear  that  the  United 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AIT)  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  173 


States  had,  when  the  lines  of  said  road  and  branches  were  definitely  fixed, 
sold  any  part  of  any  section  thereby  granted,  or  that  the  right  of  preemp- 
tion had  attached  to  the  same,  it  should  be  lawful  for  any  agent  or  agents 
(to  be  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  State)  to  select  so  much  land 
as  would  be  equal  to  the  tracts  lost  within  the  granted  limits.  This 
“indemnity”  was  to  be  selected  within  fifteen  miles  of  the  road  and 
branches. 

The  third  section  provided  that  the  sections  and  parts  of  sections 
which  by  the  operation  of  the  grant  remained  to  the  United  States  within 
six  miles  on  each  side  of  said  road  and  branches,  should  not  be  sold  for  less 
than  the  double  minimum  price  when  sold. 

Section  4 provided  for  the  disposal  of  the  lands,  and  declared  that 
the  road  should  remain  a public  highway  for  the  use  of  the  Government 
free  from  toll  or  other  charge. 

The  fifth  section  declared  within  what  period  the  roads  should  be 
completed,  and  provided  that  in  the  event  of  a failure  on  the  part  of  the 
State  to  comply  with  the  conditions  of  the  grant,  it  was  “bound  to  pay  to 
the  United  States  the  amount  which  may  be  received  upon  the  sale  of  any 
part  of  said  lands  by  said  State”.  The  title  of  the  purchasers  was  to  be 
valid,  but  the  tracts  not  sold  were  to  revert  and  revest  in  the  United  States. 

Section  6 said  that  the  mails  were  to  be  transported  at  all  times  at 
such  price  as  Congress  might  direct. 

By  the  seventh  section  the  grant  was  extended,  on  the  same  terms  and 
conditions,  to  the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding  in  the  construction  of  a road  from  Mobile  to  connect  with  the  first 
above  named  road. 

While  this  was  not  the  first  concession  of  lands  in  favor  of  railroads, 
it  may  properly  be  considered  the  initiatory  measure  of  the  present  system. 
It  granted  specific  sections  instead  of  one-lialf  of  a certain  number  of 
sections;  provided  in  positive  terms  for  “indemnity”  for  lands  lost  to  the 
grant;  designated  the  manner  in  which  the  lands  should  be  disposed  of; 
increased  the  price  of  the  reserved  sections  within  the  “granted”  limits; 
provided  for  reversion  in  case  of  default,  and  virtually  established  a form 
of  grant  which  was  differed  from  but  little  in  succeeding  donations.  It  was 


174  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


the  first  railroad  grant  that  became  effective,  for  of  all  previous  ones  none 
appear  to  have  been  developed.  The  roads  are  now  known  as  the  Illinois 
Central  and  branches,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio. 

For  the  following  two  years  no  grants  of  importance  were  made,  until 
by  an  act  approved  June  10,  1852,  a donation  was  made  to  the  State  of 
Missouri  for  the  construction  of  certain  roads  therein,  now  known  as  the 
Hannibal  and  Saint  Joseph,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific,  Southwest  Branch. 
This  grant  was  similar  in  character  and  extent  to  that  to  Illinois,  save 
two  sections— one  providing  for  the  disposal  of  the  lands,  and  the  other 
directing  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  offer  at  public  sale,  from  time  to 
time,  at  the  increased  price,  the  “reserved”  or  Government  sections.  The 
section  respecting  the  disposal  of  the  lands  is  as  follows:  “That  the  lands 
hereby  granted  to  said  State  shall  be  disposed  of  by  said  State  in  manner 
following,  that  is  to  say:  that  a quantity  of  land,  not  exceeding  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  sections  on  each  road,  and  included  within  a continuous 
length  of  twenty  miles  of  said  road,  may  be  sold;  and  when  the  governor 
of  said  State  shall  certify  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  that  said  twenty 
miles  of  road  is  completed,  then  another  like  quantity  of  land,  hereby 
granted,  may  be  sold;  and  so  from  time  to  time  until  said  road  is  completed; 
and  if  said  road  be  not  completed  within  ten  years,  no  further  sales  shall 
be  made,  and  the  lands  unsold  shall  revert  to  the  United  States.” 

With  the  exceptions  stated,  and  the  omission  of  the  clause  requiring  the 
State  to  reimburse  the  Government  for  lands  sold,  the  grants  are  identical. 

That  act  was  followed  by  an  act  approved  February  9,  1853,  making, 
under  like  conditions  and  impositions,  a similar  grant  to  Arkansas,  in  aid  of 
certain  roads  in  that  State.  In  this,  however,  the  clause  or  section  direct- 
ing the  Secretary  to  “offer”  the  lands  was  omitted. 

For  the  next  three  years  Congress  seems  to  have  been  quite  as  liberal 
in  donations  for  other  purposes,  but  no  grants  were  made  in  aid  of  railroads, 
unless  note  be  made  of  a grant  to  Minnesota  by  act  of  June  29,  1854, 
which  was  repealed  in  August  following. 

By  that  act  there  was  granted  to  the  Territory  of  Minnesota,  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  in  the  construction  of  a railroad  from  the  southern  line 
of  said  Territory,  via  Saint  Paul,  to  the  eastern  line  of  the  Territory  in  the 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  175 

direction  of  Lake  Superior,  “every  alternate  section  of  land  designated  by 
odd  numbers  for  six  sections  in  width  on  each  side  of  said  road  within  said 
Territory”;  but  in  case  it  should  appear  that  the  United  States  had,  when 
the  line  of  the  road  was  definitely  fixed,  sold  any  section  or  any  part 
thereof  granted,  or  that  the  right  of  preemption  had  attached  to  the  same, 
then  it  should  be  lawful  for  any  agent  or  agents  to  be  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  said  Territory,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  to  select  lands  from  alternate  sections  within  fifteen  miles  of  the 
road  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  The  lands  granted  were  to  be  applied  to 
the  construction  of  the  road  only.  Section  2 increased  the  price  of  the 
“reserved”  tracts. 

Section  3 provided  that  the  lands  should  be  disposed  of  by  the  legis- 
lature for  the  purposes  aforesaid  and  were  not  to  inure  to  the  benefit  of  any 
company  then  constituted  or  organized.  The  road  was  to  remain  a high- 
way, as  in  previous  grants;  and  the  lands  could  not  be  sold  until  they  had 
first  been  “offered”  at  the  increased  price. 

By  section  4 no  title  was  to  vest  in  said  Territory  or  patent  issue  for 
any  part  of  the  lands  until  a continuous  length  of  twenty  miles  of  said  road 
had  been  completed;  and  when  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  was  satisfied 
that  any  twenty  continuous  miles  of  said  road  had  been  completed,  then 
patent  was  to  issue  for  a quantity  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  twenty 
sections  of  land;  and  so  on  from  time  to  time  until  the  road  was  completed. 
If  the  road  was  not  completed  within  ten  years  no  further  sales  could  be 
made,  and  the  lands  remaining  unsold  were  to  revert. 

By  an  act  approved  August  4,  1854,  the  act  of  June  29,  1854,  was 
repealed;  and  although  four  grants  have  been  declared  forfeited,  for  failure 
of  the  grantees  to  perform  the  required  conditions,  this  is  the  only  one 
which  Congress  has  in  terms  repealed. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  subsequent  legislation  was  not  as  devoid  of 
ambiguity.  Had  it  been,  much  embarrassment  might  have  been  saved  the 
Government.  I refer  particularly  to  that  clause  or  section  respecting  the 
vesting  of  title  and  the  manner  in  which  the  State  was  to  acquire  rights 
under  the  grant.  By  the  terms  thereof  no  patents  were  to  issue  except  as 
the  work  of  building  the  road  progressed. 


176  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


By  the  omission  of  such  language  from  the  grants  subsequently  made 
from  time  to  time  to  as  late  as  1862,  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
believed  that  the  duty  of  “disposal”  was  properly  in  the  States  charged 
with  executing  the  trusts;  and  in  all  the  earlier  grants,  immediately  upon 
the  location  of  the  roads  and  determination  of  the  limits  of  the  grants, 
certified,  in  whole,  the  lands  to  which  the  companies  would  ultimately  have 
been  entitled  had  the  roads  been  completed  as  required.  At  that  time  there 
was  but  little  doubt  that  all  of  the  roads  would  be  rapidly  constructed;  but 
the  civil  conflict  very  naturally  put  a stop  to  such  extended  improvements, 
and  to-day  about  twenty  railroads  remain  uncompleted,  and  the  lands 
certified  to  the  States  for  their  use  and  benefit  exceed  by  1,058,295.86 
acres  the  lands  actually  earned  by  the  portions  of  the  several  roads  con- 
structed. 

Out  of  the  act  of  June  29,  1854,  and  the  repealing  statute  a very 
interesting  question  arose,  which  received,  ultimately,  the  consideration  of 
the  Supreme  Court.  A suit  was  brought  in  trespass  by  Edmund  Rice 
against  the  Minnesota  and  Northwestern  Railroad  Company,  for  cutting 
timber  on  a tract  of  land  in  Minnesota.  The  company,  in  its  defense,  set 
up  title  under  the  granting  act  aforesaid;  to  which  plaintiff  replied,  reciting 
the  repealing  statute.  On  demurrer  by  the  company,  the  question  as  to 
whether  an  interest  had  vested  under  said  grant  was  thus  fairly  presented 
to  the  Supreme  Court.  That  body  decided,  after  elaborate  review  of  the 
whole  case,  that  the  act  of  August  4 was  “a  valid  law”,  and  that  no 
interest,  beneficiary  or  otherwise,  had  vested  under  the  said  grant. 

In  1856,  at  different  times,  various  grants  were  made  to  the  States  of 
Iowa,  Florida,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Mississippi, 
and  on  the  3d  of  March,  1857,  to  Minnesota. 

An  examination  of  these  grants — say  the  one  to  Iowa,  it  being  first  of 
the  series — shows  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  fact  that  the  sections 
granted  were  designated  by  odd  instead  of  even  numbers,  they  were  similar 
to  the  Missouri  grant  of  1852.  The  change  there  inaugurated  was  owing 
to  the  fact  that  certain  even  sections  in  each  township  had  been  previously 
given  to  the  several  States  for  school  purposes,  and  in  a grant  embracing  a 
large  territory  the  difference  to  the  railroad  grants  caused  thereby  would  be 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTEEN AL  IMPROVEMENTS.  177 


considerable.  From  1857  until  1862  Congress  seems  to  have  been  otherwise 
engaged,  for  I am  unable  to  find  that  any  acts  were  passed  during  that 
period  touching  railroad  grants. 

By  an  act  approved  July  1,  1862,  a new  departure  was  taken.  Certain 
persons  were  created  into  a body  corporate  under  the  title  and  name  of  the 
“Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company”.  The  object  thereof  was  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  a railroad  and  telegraph  line  from  the  Missouri 
River  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

They  were  granted  the  right  of  way  through  the  public  lands  to  the 
extent  of  two  hundred  feet  in  width  on  each  side  of  the  line  of  road, 
together  with  the  necessary  grounds  for  stations,  buildings,  workshops,  etc. 
They  were  also  granted  in  aid  of  the  construction  of  the  road  “every 
alternate  section  of  public  land”,  designated  by  odd  numbers,  to  the  amount 
of  five  alternate  sections  per  mile,  on  each  side  of  the  road;  and  all  lands 
which  had  been  disposed  of  or  reserved,  and  mineral  lands,  were  excepted. 

Sections  5 and  11  of  the  act  related  to  the  issuance  of  bonds  by  the 
United  States.  Section  7 required  the  company  to  file  a map  of  its  general 
route,  and  directed  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  thereupon  withdraw 
the  lands  within  fifteen  miles  of  such  line. 

Various  other  roads  were  provided  for  upon  the  same  conditions,  now 
known  as  the  Central  Pacific,  Central  Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific,  Kansas 
Pacific,  and  Sioux  City  and  Pacific. 

As  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  inquiry  to  look  into  any  provisions 
except  such  as  relate  to  land  donations,  I will  not  pursue  the  sections 
respecting  the  issuance  of  bonds,  payment  of  interest,  etc.  But,  before 
proceeding  further,  it  is  proper  to  notice  the  changes  inaugurated  by 
that  act. 

In  the  first  place,  the  grant  was  to  a corporation  direct,  and  not  to  a 
State  in  trust  for  one. 

Second.  It  was  not  confined  to  any  particular  State  or  section,  but 
was  transcontinental  in  character,  extending  in  this  case  more  than  half 
across  our  country. 

Third.  It  was  a grant  ten  miles  in  width  on  each  side,  instead  of  six, 
as  in  previous  grants,  and  no  provision  was  made  for  indemnity. 

23  A R 


178  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Fourth.  It  provided  for  the  filing  by  the  company  of  a map  of  its 
general  or  designated  route  (before  definite  location  of  its  line) ; and  upon 
the  filing  thereof  the  lands  became  legislatively  reserved  or  withdrawn. 

By  an  act  approved  July  2,  1864,  this  act  was  amended  in  several 
particulars,  and  instead  of  “five”  sections  “ten”  were  granted,  thereby 
increasing  the  limits  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  on  each  side  of  the  roads. 
The  term  “mineral  land”  was  construed  not  to  include  “coal  and  iron 
land”. . 

By  section  19  of  this  latter  act  a grant  was  made  to  the  Burlington 
and  Missouri  River  Railroad  Company,  for  the  construction  of  a road  from 
the  Missouri  River  to  some  point  not  farther  west  than  the  one  hundredth 
meridian  of  west  longitude  to  connect  with  the  Union  Pacific  road,  of  ten 
alternate  sections  per  mile  on  each  side  of  its  line  of  road.  It  has  been 
decided  that  this  company  was  not  confined  to  any  limit,  hut  could  go  far 
enough  to  secure  the  quantity  granted,  and  it  is  the  only  railroad  whose 
grant  is  not  confined  to  lateral  limits.  By  a proviso  to  the  twentieth  sec- 
tion, however,  the  company  received  no  bonds. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  Union  Pacific  road  was  constructed  was 
surprising,  and  the  whole  progress  of  the  work  displayed  a spirit  of  energy 
seldom  seen  in  an  undertaking  of  that  character.  The  most  positive 
achievements,  however,  were  those  of  the  Central  Pacific  Company.  The 
construction  of  that  road  over  the  Sierras  is  considered  by  professional 
authorities  as  one  of  the  greatest  results  of  engineering.  It  crossed  the 
maximum  summit,  of  7,042  feet  above  the  sea,  within  one  hundred  miles  of 
the  Pacific  tide  waters,  requiring  a distribution  of  ascent  really  scientific  to 
render  it  practicable,  and,  by  using  a minimum  radius  of  573  feet,  secured, 
comparatively  speaking,  a direct  alignment. 

The  two  roads  were  completed  and  a junction  effected  May  10,  1869, 
and  the  initial  transcontinental  line  was  thereby  finished. 

By  an  act  approved  March  3,  1863,  there  was  a grant  made  to  the 
State  of  Kansas  to  aid  in  constructing  certain  railroads  therein,  now  known 
as  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fd;  Leavenworth,  Lawrence  and  Gal- 
veston, and  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas.  It  was  of  every  alternate  section 
of  land  designated  by  odd  numbers  for  ten  sections  in  width  on  each  side 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  179 


of  said  roads.  Indemnity  was  provided  in  ten  additional  miles  and,  except 
as  to  extent,  it  was  not  unlike  the  Iowa  grant. 

On  the  5th  of  May,  1864,  similar  grants  were  made  to  the  States  of  Min- 
nesota and  Wisconsin,  and  on  the  12th  of  May  to  the  State  of  Iowa.  Vari- 
ous other  grants  followed  of  like  character,  differing  only  in  few  respects, 
to  Arkansas,  Alabama,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Kansas ; 
as  also  grants  for  wagon  roads.  The  latter  were  similar  in  terms  to  the 
railroad  grants,  save  that  three  sections  on  either  side  of  the  roads  were 
given  instead  of  six  or  ten.  The  Northern  Pacific  was  created  July  1,  1864, 
and  was  very  much  like  the  Union  Pacific  grant,  except  in  extent,  being 
double  the  quantity  through  the  Territories,  with  provision  for  “indemnity”. 
The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  and  Southern  Pacific  grants  were  made  by  act  of 
July  27,  1866;  the  Denver  Pacific  by  act  of  March  3,  1869;  the  South- 
ern Pacific  (branch  line)  and  Texas  and  Pacific  by  act  of  March  3, 
1871. 

Many  of  the  grants  made  in  early  years  were  enlarged,  and  the  time 
for  their  completion  extended;  but  thus  far  only  four  grants  have  been 
declared  forfeited.  At  present,  however,  about  twenty  grants  have  “lapsed ’> 
by  reason  of  non-compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  granting  acts,  requiring 
completion  within  prescribed  periods,  and  recommendations  have  been 
made  urging  proper  legislation. 

Neither  time  nor  space  permit  an  extended  examination  of  every  grant, 
but  sufficient  has  been  considered  to  point  out  the  origin  and  growth  of 
the  system. 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  donation  was  one-twentieth  part  of  certain 
proceeds  derived  from  the  sale  of  lands;  then  ninety  feet  of  land,  followed 
soon  by  one-half  of  five  sections  per  mile  on  each  side;  then  by  six  sec- 
tions; then  by  ten,,  and  finally  by  twenty  sections  per  mile  on  each  side  of 
the  road. 

If  the  lands  granted,  or  in  other  words  embraced  within  the  limits  of 
the  grants,  could  be  found  available,  the  companies,  not  including  those  for 
canals  or  wagon  roads,  would  receive,  provided  each  built  its  road  and 
complied  with  the  laws,  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifteen  million  acres. 
That  quantity  if  embraced  in  one  compact  body,  would  form  an  area  of 


180  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


more  than  three  hundred  and  thirty-five  thousand  square  miles,  or  a tract 
of  land  more  than  seven  times  as  large  as  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
only  about  six  thousand  miles  less  than  the  area  of  the  thirteen  original 
States.  But,  in  fact,  the  grants  will  not  realize  near  that  quantity,  and  the 
estimate,  as  made  by  the  Land  Department,  is  only  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  million  acres. 

By  the  aid  of  those  grants,  however,  about  fifteen  thousand  miles  of 
road  have  been  constructed.  Those  roads  have  been  the  means  of  devel- 
oping vast  fields  of  magnificent  territory,  and  securing  to  the  people  many 
lesser  lines  built  by  private  capital. 

The  various  grants  have  been  the  subject  of  much  explanatory,  amend- 
atory, and  confirmatory  legislation,  and  have  also  received  numerous  inter- 
pretations by  the  different  courts.  Of  the  latter,  I deem  it  proper  to  refer 
only  to  the  more  important  rulings  of  the  Supreme  Court  which  bear  upon 
the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  whole  system. 

In  nearly  all  grants,  except  the  Pacific,  provision  has  been  made  for 
indemnity  in  case  it  appeared,  when  the  lines  of  the  roads  had  been  defi- 
nitely fixed,  that  the  United  States  had  sold,  disposed  of,  or  reserved  any  of 
the  sections  or  parts  of  sections  contained  within  the  grants.  The  theory 
has  heretofore  existed  that  “indemnity”  was  allowed  for  all  tracts  which 
might  not  be  found  subject  to  the  operation  of  the  grant;  and  selections 
have  been  permitted  in  lieu  of  such  disposed  of  or  reserved  tracts. 

A recent  decision,  however,  casts  some  doubt  upon  the  correctness  of 
this  theory.  The  question  came  up  in  a case  from  Kansas,  under  the  act 
of  March  3,  1863,  and  the  court  declared: 

“We  have  before  said  that  the  grant  itself  was  in  prcesenti,  and  covered 
all  the  odd  sections  which  should  appear,  on  the  location  of  the  road,  to 
have  been  within  the  grant  when  it  was  made.  The  right  to  them  did  not, 
however,  depend  on  such  location,  but  attached  at  once  on  the  making  of 
the  grant.  It  is  true  they  could  not  be  identified  until  the  line  of  the  road  was 
marked  out  on  the  ground,  but  as  soon  as  this  was  done  it  was  easy  to  find 
them.  If  the  company  did  not  obtain  all  of  them  within  the  original  limit, 
by  reason  of  the  power  of  sale  or  reservation  retained  by  the  United  States, 
it  was  to  be  compensated  by  an  equal  amount  of  substituted  lands.  The 


LAND  GRANTS  IN  AID  OP  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS.  181 


latter  could  not,  on  any  contingency,  be  selected  within  that  limit.  * * * 

It  would  be  strange,  indeed,  if  the  [indemnity]  clause  had  been  intended  to 
perform  the  office  of  making  a new  grant  within  the  ten  mile  limit,  or 
enlarging  the  one  already  made.  Instead  of  this,  the  words  employed 
show  clearly  that  its  only  purpose  is  to  give  sections  beyond  that  limit  for 
those  lost  within  it  by  the  action  of  the  government  between  the  date  of 
the  grant  and  the  location  of  the  road.  This  construction  gives  effect  to 
the  whole  statute,  and  makes  each  part  consistent  with  the  other.” 

If  it  be  thought,  however,  that  such  was  not  the  intention  of  the  legis- 
lators who  framed  the  statutes,  consolation  can  be  found  in  the  construction 
given  to  the  clause  inserted  in  every  grant,  substantially  as  follows:  “And 
the  said  road  shall  remain  a public  highway  for  the  use  of  the  Government, 
free  from  toll  or  other  charge  upon  the  transportation  of  troops  or  other 
property  of  the  United  States.” 

It  is  declared  by  the  Supreme  Court  that  the  purpose  of  that  clause 
was  to  allow  the  Government  the  right  to  place  its  locomotive  engines  and 
cars  upon  the  railroad  tracks,  and  to  use  such  tracks  as  a public  highway. 
The  court  say:  “We  are  of  opinion  that  the  reservation  in  question  secures 
to  the  Government  only  a free  use  of  the  railroads  concerned;  and  that  it 
does  not  entitle  the  Government  to  have  troops  or  property  transported  by 
the  companies  over  their  respective  roads  free  of  charge  for  transporting 
the  same.” 

The  section  providing  for  the  disposal  of  the  lands,  recited  in  full  in 
the  Missouri  grant  of  1852,  has  been  construed  as  vesting  in  the  State  the 
right  to  sell  one  hundred  and  twenty  sections  of  land,  contained  within  a 
continuous  length  of  twenty  miles  at  any  place  along  the  grant,  even  though 
the  road  contemplated  was  never  built;  and  the  title  acquired  by  purchase 
from  the  State  is  valid.  And  the  clause  with  which  the  section  referred  to 
ends,  to  the  effect  that  if  tho  road  be  not  completed  within  a certain  time 
the  lands  shall  revert  to  the  United  States,  has  been  declared  inoperative 
without  further  action  by  the  Government,  either  legislative  or  judicial, 
looking  to  an  enforcement  of  the  reserved  right. 

Fears  have  been  awakened  as  to  the  power  to  ultimately  control 
these  corporations,  on  account  of  the  enormous  extent  to  which  they  have 


182  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


expanded;  but,  as  has  been  said  by  an  able  writer,  “this  evil,  however,  if 
it  be  such,  will  probably  work  its  own  cure.” 

Be  that  as  it  may,  their  influences  have  been  felt  by  all,  and  their 
benefits  have  extended  to  the  remotest  sections  of  our  country.  They  have 
proved  a bond  between  the  eastern  and  western  States — anxiously  sought 
for  by  Washington  when  the  lateral  limits  of  the  United  States  were  less 
than  half  what  they  are  at  this  time.  They  have  united  the  Pacific  with 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the  west  with  the  Alleghanies  of 
the  east.  They  have  dispelled  all  ideas  looking  to  the  removal  of  the  seat 
of  Government,  for  they  have  put  in  direct  communication  the  people  of 
Oregon  with  the  people  of  Maine.  From  ocean  to  ocean  requires  but 
days,  where  only  a few  years  ago  it  required  weeks. 

In  the  past,  long  lines  of  moving  wagons  groaned  beneath  their  loads 
of  adventurous  families,  who  at  night,  within  the  corral,  seated  themselves 
around  the  blazing  camp  fire,  fearful  of  the  dangers  to  which  they  were 
exposed.  But  the  present  has  forgotten  them.  In  their  stead  the  ponderous 
wheels  of  frequent  trains,  moving  with  a speed  surpassing  that  of  tile  deer, 
traversing  the  valley  and  mountain,  carry  forward  their  loads  of  living 
freight;  and,  in  place  of  dangerous  encampments,  provide  means  of  sleep 
and  refreshment,  and  afford  the  comforts  of  luxurious  homes.  The  railway 
has  brought  to  our  doors  the  harvest  of  our  fields;  handed  to  our  mints  the 
vast  resources  of  our  mines,  and  opened  to  us  direct  communication  with 
the  older  worlds.  Its  arms  have  extended  into  a hundred  vales  and  over 
a hundred  mountains,  grasping  in  their  embrace  manifold  evidences  of 
civilization  and  prosperity. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Abbott,  Mr. 62 

Abies  amabilis 102 

Canadensis . 100 

voncolor 101 

Douglasii 100 

Engelmanni 101 

grandis 102 

Menziesii 101 

subalpina . 101 

Acer  grandidentata 103 

Agricultural  and  timber  industries  differentiated 18 

resources  of  the  Bear  River  drainage  basin 119 

Jordan  River  drainage  basin 124 

Weber  River  drainage  basin 121 

Agriculture,  Amount  of  precipitation  necessary  for 2, 3 

Influence  of  temperature  upon 2 

in  the  Arid  Region  dependent  upon  irrigation 40 

in  Utah  dependent  upon  irrigation 6 

exceptions  thereto 6 

limited  by  several  conditions 7 

Utilization  of  the  small  streams  in 7 

without  irrigation 3,6, 50 

Aira  cocspitosa 109 

Alabama,  Land-grants  to 179 

Alkaline  salts 145 

Amount  of  land  a unit  of  water  will  supply 7 

Antelope  Island 63,64 

■ bar 63,67 

Areal  distribution  of  rainfall 82 

Area  of  irrigable  land  sometimes  not  limited  by  water  supply 85 

Areas  of  standing  timber 15 

to  which  larger  streams  can  be  taken 7 

which  smaller  streams  can  serve 7 

Arid  Region,  Boundaries  of  the 1,3 

Extent  of  the 5 

Increase  in  water  supply  in  the 89, 91 

Land  system  needed  for  the 25 


(183) 


184  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Page. 

Arid  Region,  Mining  industries  of  the 88 

Physical  characteristics  of  the 1 

Precipitation  of  the 48 

Rainfall  of  the 5 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Seasonal  precipitation  in 56 

Arkansas,  Land  grants  to 174, 179 

Artemisia 110 

Ashley  Fork,  Irrigable  lands  of 161 

Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  F6  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 178 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 179 

Atlantic  coast,  Flow  of  the  rivers  of  the 76 

Rainfall  on  the 69 

Barfoot,  Mr.  J.  L 59 

Barton,  Mr 113 

Basin,  Colorado.  (See  Colorado  Basin.) 

Great  Salt  Lake.  ( See  Great  Salt  Lake  District.) 

Range  System 94 

Sevier  Lake.  ( See  Sevier  Lake  District.) 

Uinta- White.  (See  Uinta-White  Basin.) 

Bear  River - 117 

City 78 

drainage  basin,  Agricultural  resources  of  the 119 

Ar  ea  of  the 119 

Mean  flow  of  the 72 

Beaver  dams,  Effect  of  cutting 74 

Betula  occidentalis 103 

Bill  to  authorize  the  organization  of  irrigation  districts 30 

pasturage  districts 33 

Black  Rock  bench 61 

pillar - - 59,60 

Bonneville  Lake 96 

Book  Cliffs,  Orographic  structure  of  the 98 

Bouteloua  oliyostachya -*  108 

Bromus - — 109 

Brown  Cliffs - 98 

Brown’s  Park,  Irrigable  lands  of - 162 

Burlington  and  Missouri  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 178 

Canals,  Land  grants  in  aid  of 166 

Canon  Lands,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 106 

Coal  lands  of  the 106 

Description  of  the 105 

of  Utah 94 

Carex  Jamesii - 109 

Carrington  Island 62 


INDEX. 


185 


Page. 

Castle  Valley 105 

Central  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 177 

Cercocarp  ms  parvifolius . 110 

Celtie  occidentalis . 103 

Circle  Valley,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 137 

Climate  of  the  Colorado  Basin 151 

Coal  lands 45 

Disposal  of  the 44 

of  the  Canon  Lands 106 

of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region 19 

Colony  system 28 

Colorado  Basin,  Climate  of  the , 151 

Elevation  of  the 151 

Irrigable  lands  of  the 150 

Mean  annual  precipitation  in  the 79 

Orographic  structure  of  the 95 

Source  of  the  water  supply  of  the 152 

Table  of  irrigable  lands  of  the 164 

drainage  area 94 

River,  Principal  tributaries  of  the,  in  Utah 150 

Conditions  affecting  the  distribution  of  rainfall 90 

Cooperative  labor  necessary  to  the  development  of  irrigation 11 

Critical  period 85, 138, 154 

season 116 

Dakota,  Precipitation  of. 51 

Denver  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 179 

Desert  drainage  area 94 

Orographic  structure  of  the 95 

Des  Moines  River,  Land  grant  in  aid  of  the  improvement  of  the 171 

Distribution  of  rain  throughout  the  year 50 

District,  Great  Salt  Lake.  (See  Great  Salt  Lake  District.) 

Sevier  Lake.  ( See  Sevier  Lake  District.) 

Division  lines  of  pasturage  farms 22, 28, 37 

of  land  by  settlers 38 

Drainage  area,  Colorado 94 

Desert 94 

Modification  of  the  conditions  of 73 

of  the  Tavaputs  Plateau 96 

Uinta  Mountains 96 

W asatch  Mountains 96 

Utah 94 

Drummond,  Willis,  jr.,  on  land  grants  in  aid  of  internal  improvements 164 

Dry  farming 50, 78 

Duchesne  River,  Volume  of  flow  of  the 160 

Dutton,  Capt.  C.  E.,  cited 110 

on  the  irrigable  land  of  the  Sevier  Basin 128 

24  A R 


186  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Page. 

East  Florida  Railroad  Company,  Land  grant  to  the 169 

Egg  Island 67 

Engelmann,  Mr 102 

Erovoma  cuspidaia 108 

Escalante  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 156 

Volume  of  flow  of  the 156 

Eurotia  lanata 110 

Evaporation  by  spreading  of  water  74 

Farmington  pillar 61 

Farming  without  irrigation 77 

Farm  residences,  Grouping  of 22 

unit  for  pasturage  lands 21, 28 

Fencing  of  pasturage  lands 23 

Fires  in  the  timber  region 15, 99 

Cause  of 17,99 

Protection  from * 18, 99 

Flood-plain  lands ' 88 

Forests,  Amount  of  rainfall  necessary  to  the  growth  of 15 

Fox,  Mr.  Jesse  W 61,113 

Fraxinm  anomala 103 

coriacea 103 

Fremont  Island 62, 67 

River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 157 

Tributaries  of  the 157 

Volume  of  flow  of  the . 157, 158 

Gilbert,  G.  K.,  cited 84, 110 

on  irrigable  land  of  the  Salt  Lake  drainage  system 113 

on  water  supply 57 

Government  right  to  use  of  subsidized  railroads 181 

Grand  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 163 

Volume  of  flow  of  the 163 

Grasses  of  the  pasturage  lands 19 

Utah 107 

Great  Salt  Lake,  Accumulation  of  the  water  in 58 

Area  of 66, 73 

Basin.  ( See  Great  Salt  Lake  District.) 

Causes  of  abnormal  change  of 67 

Desert 66 

Diagram  showing  rise  and  fall  of 04 

District 94 

Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 107 

Change  in  the  climate  of  the 68, 70 

Description  of  the - 107 

Irrigable  lands  of  the 113 

Fluctuations  in  the  rainfall  of  the 70 


INDEX. 


187 


Page. 

Great  Salt  Lake  District,  Irrigation  by  large  streams  in  the 117 

small  streams  in  the 126 

Evaporation  of  the  water  of 58, 72 

History  of  the  past  changes  of 62 

Increase  and  decrease  of  the  size  of 58 

Islands  of 62 

Limited  oscillation  of 59 

Limit  of  wave  action  of 65 

Record  of  height  of . 60 

Rise  and  fall  of 59 

Storm  lines  of 65 

Streams  flowing  into . 72 

Green  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 162 

Volume  of  flow  of  the  162 

Gunnison,  Captain 98 

Valley 105 

Irrigable  lands  of  the 163 


Hayden,  Dr.  F.  V 71 

Henry  Mountains 105 

Prof.  Joseph 46, 59, 62, 79 

Henrys  Fork,  Irrigable  lands  of 161 


Illinois,  Land  grants  to 

Increase  in  water  supply  in  the  Arid  Region . 

of  rainfall 

Indiana,  Land  grants  to 

Internal  improvements,  Land  grants  in  aid  of 

Iowa,  Land  grants  to 

Irrigable  and  pasturage  lands  of  Utah 

areas,  Increase  of,  by  storage  of  water 

land,  Area  of,  sometimes  not  limited  by  water  supply 

Extent  of,  increased  by  the  use  of  springs 

in  Utah,  Amount  of 

lands 

Amount  of  water  required  for 

Disposal  of 

highly  productive 

Important  questions  relating  to 

Increase  in  the  extent  of  the 

in  Utah  Territory,  Table  of 

of  Southwestern  Utah 

of  the  Colorado  Basin 

Table  of 

Great  Salt  Lake  District 

Sevier  Lake  District 

valley  of  the  Sevier  River 


. 168,172 
.57,89, 91 
. 69, 91 

. 166,167 
165 
. 169,179 
104 
12, 13 
. 85, 86 

9 


23 

84 

27 

10 

81 

57 

111 

148 

150 

164 

113 

134 

128 


188  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Page. 

Irrigable  lands  of  the,  VirginRiver 153 

of  Utah,  Distribution  of  the 9 

Selection  of 87 

Situation  of  the 6 

Irrigating  canals,  Cost  of 125 

methods,  Improvement  in 8 

season 85 

Irrigation,  Advantages  of 10 

Amount  of  water  needed  for 114 

used  in 141 

companies 40 

Cooperative  labor  necessary  to  the  development  of 11 

Direct  influence  of,  upon  the  inflow  of  Great  Salt  Lake .. 75 

Indirect  influence  of,  upon  the  inflow  of  Great  Salt  Lake 76 

of  pasturage  farms 21 

Quantitative  value  of  water  used  in 81 

Unit  of  water  used  in 81 

Isohyetal  line  of  twenty  inches 2 

Jordan  River 121 

drainage  basin,  Agricultural  resources  of  the 124 

Area  of  the 125 

Mean  flow  of  the 72 

Juncus  Balticus 109 

Jwniperus  Californicus - 103 

Virginiana 103 

Kanab  Creek,  Irrigable  lands  of - 154 

Ponding  of 154 

Kansas,  Land  grants  to 178, 179 

-Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 177 

Kimball,  Mr.  Heber  P 61 

King,  Mr.  Clarence 66 

Lake  Bonneville 06 

Utah,  Function  of,  as  a reservoir 123 

Land  grants  in  aid  of  internal  improvements  165 

Lands,  Classification  of 43 

Irrigable.  (See  Irrigable  Lands. ) 

of  Utah 93 

and  Idaho  fertilized  by  water 75 

Physical  features  of  the 93 

Pasturage.  ( See  Pasturage  Lands.) 

Land  system  needed  for  the  Arid  Region 25 

Leavenworth,  Lawrence  and  Galveston  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 178 

Lower  Columbia  Region 1 

Precipitation  of  the  - 49 


INDEX. 


189 


Page. 

Marshes,  Drainage  of 74 

Evaporation  from . 74 

Martineau,  Mr.  J.  H 113 

Mean  temperature  by  seasons  for  the  San  Francisco  Region 54 

Method  of  determining  the  supply  of  water 85, 86 

Michigan,  Land  grants  to 179 

Miller,  Mr.  Jacob 61,62 

Mineral  lands 44 

Disposal  of 44 

not  suited  to  agriculture 44 

Minnie  Maud  Creek,  Irrigable  lands  of 160 

Volume  of  flow  of 160 

Minnesota  and  Northwestern  Railroad  Company 176 

Land  grants  to  the 174,179 

Mississippi  Valley,  Flow  of  the  rivers  of  the 76 

Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 178 

Land  grants  to 179 

Mitchell,  Mr.  John  T 59 

Monopoly  of  pasturage  farms 22 

Mountains,  Henry 105 

TTinta.  ((See  Uinta  Mountains.) 

Wasatch.  (See  Wasatch  Mountains.  ) 

Negundo  aceroides 103 

Nevada,  Mean  annual  precipitation  in 79 

New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  Seasonal  precipitation  in 56 

New  Orleans  and  Nashville  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 168 

New  York,  Rainfall  of  the  State  of 70 

Ogden  River,  Measured  volume  of  the 120 

Ohio,  Land  grants/to 166,167 

Ohio  Valley,  Rainfall  of  the 70 

Orographic  structure  of  the  Book  Cliffs 98 

Colorado  drainage  area 95 

Desert  drainage  area 95 

Uinta  Mountains 97 

Wasatch  Mountains 96 

Pacific  coast,  Seasonal  precipitation  and  temperature  of  the 55 

Panguitch  Valley,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in 136 

Paria  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 155 

Volume  of  flow  of  the 155 

Park,  Dr.  John  R 59 

Pasturage  farms,  Division  lines  of 22, 28,  37 

Irrigation  of 21 

need  small  tracts  of  irrigable  land . . 21, 28 

lands 19, 24, 104 


190  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Page. 

Pasturage  lands,  Boundaries  of 19 

Disposal  of 28 

Extent  of 19 

Farm  unit  for 21,28 

Fencing  of 23 

Grasses  of  the 19 

Monopoly  of  the 22 

partially  supplied  by  scattered  springs 21 

Situation  of  the 6 

Phragmites  communis 109 

Pinus  aristata 100 

edulis . 100 

Jlexilis . 100 

monticola 100 

ponder  osa 100 

Pioneers,  Enterprise  and  industries  of 41 

Plateaus,  The  High 94 

Plateati,  Tavaputs 93 

Yampa 105 

Poas 108 

Ponding 12, 13 

Ponds,  Evaporation  of  the  water  of 73 

Populus  angustifolia 102 

monilifera 102 

tremuloides 102 

Precipitation  in  the  Region  of  the  Plains 52 

Mean  annual,  in  Colorado  79 

Nevada 79 

Utah  79 

Wyoming 79 

north  of  the  Columbia  River 1 

of  Dakota 51 

Texas 50 

the  Arid  Region 48 

Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia 49 

San  Francisco  Region 49 

Sub-humid  Region 47 

Precipitation,  Seasonal,  of  the  Pacific  Coast 55 

Price  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 159 

Volume  of  flow  of  the - 159 

Provo  River 121 

Public  lands,  How  to  acquire  title  to 25 

Quercus  undulata - 103 

Railroads,  Land  grants  in  aid  of 165, 168, 172 

Rainfall,  Areal  distribution  of 82 

Conditions  affecting  the  distribution  of 90 


INDEX. 


191 


Page. 

Rainfall,  Distribution  of,  throughout  the  year 50 

Increase  of 91 

of  the  Arid  Region 5, 48 

belt  between  Great  Salt  Lake  and  Wasatch  Mountains 6, 79 

Sub-humid  Region 4, 47 

of  the  western  portion  of  the  United  States 4b 

Rain  gauge  records 1, 3, 91, 131 

Deficiency  of 1 

“ Rainy  seasons  ” 25, 50 

Ranges,  Basin . 94 

Records,  Rain  gauge 1,3, 91, 131 

Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia.  (See  Lower  Columbia  Region. ) 

of  the  Plains,  Seasonal  precipitation  in  the 52 

San  Francisco.  (See  San  Francisco  Region.) 

Sub-humid.  (See  Sub-humid  Region.) 

Renshawe,  Mr.  J.  H 113, 153 

Reservoirs 12, 13, 85, 144 


River,  Bear.  (See  Bear  River. ) 

Colorado.  (See  Colorado  River.) 
Duchesne.  (See  Duchesne  River.) 
Escalante.  (See  Escalante  River.) 
Fremont.  (See  Fremont  River.) 
Grand.  (See  Grand  River.) 

Green.  (See  Green  River.) 

Gunnison.  (See  Gunnison  River.) 
Jordan.  (See  Jordan  River.)' 

Ogden.  (See  Ogden  River.) 

Paria.  (See  Paria  River.) 

Price.  (See  Price  River.) 

Provo.  (See  Provo  River. ) 

San  Rafael.  (See  San  Rafael  River.) 
Sevier.  (See  Sevier  River. ) 

Uinta.  (See  Uinta  River.) 

Virgin.  (See  Virgin  River.) 

Weber.  (See  W eber  River. ) 

White.  (See  White  River.) 


Rivers,  Land  grants  in  aid  of  improvement  of 169 

Rockwood,  Hon.  A.  P 113 

San  Francisco  Region,  Mean  temperature,  by  seasons,  of  the 54 

Precipitation  of  the 49 

Rainy  season  of  the 54 

Seasonal  precipitation  in  the 53 

San  Pete  Valley,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the • 138 

Flow  of  the  streams  of  the 138 

San  Rafael  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 158, 159 

Trbutaries  of  the 1 158 


192  LANDS  OF  THE  ARID  REGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Page. 

San  Rafael  River,  Volume  of  flow  of  the 159 

Schott,  Mr.  Charles  A 46, 69 

Seasonal  precipitation  and  temperatures  on  the  Pacific  coast 55 

in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 56 

Seasonal  precipitation  in  the  Region  of  the  Plains 52 

San  Francisco  Region 53 

Selection  of  irrigable  lands 87 

Sevier  Lake  Basin 94 

District 94 

Altitudes  in  the 133 

Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the - 106, 143 

Climate  of  the 131 

Description  of  the 106 

Irrigable  lands  of  the 134 

Physical  characteristics  of  the 130 

Rainfall  of  the 131 

Rain  gauge  records  of  the 131 

River,  Course  of  the 129 

Volume  of  flow  of  the 139, 140 

Irrigable  lands  of  the  valley  of  the 128 

Valley  of  the 129 

Sierra  La  Sal 105 

Sioux  City  and  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 177 

Smithsonian  Tables  of  Precipitation 46, 69 

Soil  and  subsoil,  Complicating  conditions  of - 83 

Conditions  of 82 

Soils 145 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 179 

Springs,  Opening  out  of 74 

Use  of,  in  irrigation 9 

Stansbury,  Captain  Howard 64, 65, 66 

Island 67 

bar 64, 67 

Streams,  Descent  of 88 

flowing  into  Great  Salt  Lake 72 

Flow  of,  at  different  periods ...  13 

Increase  in  the  volume  of 57 

Measurement  of 86, 115 

of  San  Pete  Valley,  Volume  of  flow  of  the 140 

of  Utah,  Fluctuations  of  the 115 

Practical  capacity  of 85 

small,  Employment  of,  in  irrigation 7, 11, 12 

Strong’s  Knob 67 

Sub-humid  Region,  Boundaries  of  the 3 

destitute  of  forests --  4 

Mean  precipitation  of  the 47 

Rainfall  of  the 4 


INDEX. 


193 


Page. 

Supply  of  water,  Method  of  determining  the 85,86 

Table  I.  Precipitation  of  the  Sub-humid  Region 47 

II.  Arid  Region 48 

III.  San  Francisco  Region 49 

IV.  Region  of  the  Lower  Columbia 49 

V.  Texas 50 

VI.  Dakota 51 

VII.  Season  of  precipitation  in  the  Region  of  the  Plains 52 

VIII.  San  Francisco  Region 53 

IX.  Mean  temperature,  by  seasons,  for  the  San  Francisco  Region 54 

X.  Seasonable  precipitation  and  temperatures  on  the  Pacific  coast 55 

XI.  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 56 

of  irrigable  lands  in  Utah Ill 

of  southwestern  Utah 149 

of  the  Colorado  Basin 164 

Sevier  Lake  District 144 

of  mean  annual  precipitation  in  Colorado 79 

Nevada 79 

Utah 79 

Wyoming 79 

Tavaputs  Plateau 93 

Drainage  of  the 96 

Temperature  dependent  upon  altitude  and  latitude 2 

Temperatures,  Seasonal,  on  the  Pacific  Coast 55 

Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 179 

Precipitation  of 50 

The  High  Plateaus 94 

Thomas,  Prof.  Cyrus 71 

Thompson,  Prof.  A.  H.,  cited 86, 110 

on  the  irrigable  land  of  the  Colorado  Basin 150 

Timber 98 

Areas  of  standing 15, 17 

Cultivation  of 19 

Destruction  of,  by  fire 15 

growth  dependent  upon  climatic  conditions 14 

lands 14,23 

Boundaries  of  the 14 

Disposal  of  the 27 

Situation  of  the i 6, 14 

regions 15 

Extent  of  the 16 

Fires  in  the 15,17,18,99 

^Titles  to  public  lands 25 

Uinta  Mountains 93 

Drainage  of  the  96 

Orographic  structure  of  the 97 

25  A R. 


194  LANDS  OF  THE  AK1D  KEGION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Page. 

Uinta  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the . 160 

Tributaries  of  the 160 

Volume  of  flow  of  the 160, 161 

White  Basin . 93 

Amount  of  irrigable  lands  in  the 105 

Description  of  the 104 

Physical  features  of  the . . 160 

Union  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  Land  grants  to  the 177 

Unit  of  water  supply 8, 84, 115, 141 

Method  of  determining  the 8 

used  in  irrigation HI 

Utah,  Amount  of  cultivated  land  in 84 

Church  government  in 89, 128 

Drainage  of 94 

Forest  trees  of 100 

Grasses  of 107 

Irrigable  and  pasturage  lands  of 104 

Lake 123 

Lands  of 93 

Mean  annual  precipitation  in 79 

Pasturage  lands  of 104 

Prevailing  winds  of 68 

Table  of  irrigable  lands  in Ill 

Timber  of 98 

Variety  of  crops  cultivated  in 84 

W atershed  of 94 

Valley,  Castle 105 

Circle,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 137 

Gunnison 105 

Irrigable  lands  of  the 162 

of  the  Mississippi 76 

Sevier  River,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 144 

Panguitch,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the - 136 

San  Pete,  Amount  of  irrigable  land  in  the 138 

Flow  of  the  streams  of  the - 140 

Vasey,  Dr.  George 108 

Vilfa  ( Sporobolis ) airoides 108 

Virgin  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the 153 

Volume  of  water  flowing  in  the  streams,  Determination  of 8 

Wagon  roads,  Land  grants  in  aid  of 166 

Ward,  Mr.  L.  F 103 

Wasatch  Mountains 93,94 

Drainage  of  the 96 

Orographic  structure  of  the 96 

Wastage  of  water 34 


INDEX. 


195 


Page. 

Water,  Evaporation  of . 13 

Irrigating  capacity  of 8, 84, 115, 141 

Loss  of,  by  evaporation 87 

Method  of  determining  the  supply  of 85, 115, 139 

storing 12 

rights 40 

should  inhere  in  the  lands  to  be  irrigated 40, 41 

supply 57 

affected  by  the  cutting  of  timber 75 

farming 73 

grazing . . 74 

Economic  bearings  of  the 76 

Increase  in  the 57, 89, 91 

Storage  of 116, 125, 144 

used  in  irrigation,  Quantitative  value  of 81 

Unit  of 81 

Wastage  of 84, 142 

ways  rudely  constructed 8 

Weber  River 119 

drainage  basin,  Agricultural  resources  of  the 121 

Area  of  the 121 

Mean  flow  of  the 72 

White  River,  Irrigable  lands  of  the : 162 

Volume  of  flow  of  the.. 162 

Winds  of  Utah 68 

Wisconsin,  Land  grants  to 169, 179 

Wyoming,  Mean  annual  precipitation  in 79 

Yampa  Plateau 105 

Young,  Hon.  Brigham 105 

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